Design and Development of Aircraft Systems
2nd Edition
Published on 7. December 2012
Book
Hardback
334 pages
978-1-119-94119-4 (ISBN)
Description
Now covering both conventional and unmanned systems, this is a significant update of the definitive book on aircraft system design
Design and Development of Aircraft Systems, Second Edition is for people who want to understand how industry develops the customer requirement into a fully integrated, tested, and qualified product that is safe to fly and fit for purpose. This edition has been updated to take into account the growth of unmanned air vehicles, together with updates to all chapters to bring them in line with current design practice and technologies as taught on courses at BAE Systems and Cranfield, Bristol and Loughborough universities in the UK.
Design and Development of Aircraft Systems, Second Edition
* Provides a holistic view of aircraft system design describing the interaction between all of the subsystems such as fuel system, navigation, flight control etc.
* Covers all aspects of design including systems engineering, design drivers, systems architectures, systems integration, modelling of systems, practical considerations, & systems examples.
* Incorporates essential new material on Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS).
Design and Development of Aircraft Systems, Second Edition has been written to be generic and not to describe any single process. It aims to complement other volumes in the Wiley Aerospace Series, in particular Aircraft Systems, Third Edition and Civil Avionics Systems by the same authors, and will inform readers of the work that is carried out by engineers in the aerospace industry to produce innovative and challenging - yet safe and reliable - systems and aircraft.
Essential reading for Aerospace Engineers.
Design and Development of Aircraft Systems, Second Edition is for people who want to understand how industry develops the customer requirement into a fully integrated, tested, and qualified product that is safe to fly and fit for purpose. This edition has been updated to take into account the growth of unmanned air vehicles, together with updates to all chapters to bring them in line with current design practice and technologies as taught on courses at BAE Systems and Cranfield, Bristol and Loughborough universities in the UK.
Design and Development of Aircraft Systems, Second Edition
* Provides a holistic view of aircraft system design describing the interaction between all of the subsystems such as fuel system, navigation, flight control etc.
* Covers all aspects of design including systems engineering, design drivers, systems architectures, systems integration, modelling of systems, practical considerations, & systems examples.
* Incorporates essential new material on Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS).
Design and Development of Aircraft Systems, Second Edition has been written to be generic and not to describe any single process. It aims to complement other volumes in the Wiley Aerospace Series, in particular Aircraft Systems, Third Edition and Civil Avionics Systems by the same authors, and will inform readers of the work that is carried out by engineers in the aerospace industry to produce innovative and challenging - yet safe and reliable - systems and aircraft.
Essential reading for Aerospace Engineers.
Reviews / Votes
"The book is aimed at aerospace engineers, educational establishments from high school, through college and university undergraduate or postgraduate level. It would also be a good reference book for short courses, e.g. continuous professional development for industry professionals." (The Aeronautical Journal, 1 November 2013)More details
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Design and Development of Aircraft Systems
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Persons
Content
About the Authors xiii
Series Preface xv
Acknowledgements xvi
Glossary xvii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 General 1
1.2 Systems Development 3
1.3 Skills 7
1.4 Overview 9
References 11
Further Reading 11
2 The Aircraft Systems 13
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Definitions 13
2.3 Everyday Examples of Systems 14
2.4 Aircraft Systems of Interest 17
2.4.1 Airframe Systems 22
2.4.2 Vehicle Systems 22
2.4.3 Interface Characteristics of Vehicle Systems 24
2.4.4 Avionics Systems 25
2.4.5 Characteristics of Vehicle and Avionics Systems 26
2.4.6 Mission Systems 26
2.4.7 Interface Characteristics of Mission Systems 27
2.5 Ground Systems 27
2.6 Generic System Definition 28
References 31
Further Reading 31
3 The Design and Development Process 33
3.1 Introduction 33
3.2 Definitions 34
3.3 The Product Life Cycle 35
3.4 Concept Phase 39
3.4.1 Engineering Process 40
3.4.2 Engineering Skills 42
3.5 Definition Phase 43
3.5.1 Engineering Process 43
3.5.2 Engineering Skills 44
3.6 Design Phase 47
3.6.1 Engineering Process 47
3.6.2 Engineering Skills 48
3.7 Build Phase 49
3.7.1 Engineering Process 49
3.7.2 Engineering Skills 49
3.8 Test Phase 50
3.8.1 Engineering Process 50
3.8.2 Engineering Skills 50
3.9 Operate Phase 51
3.9.1 Engineering Process 51
3.9.2 Engineering Skills 52
3.10 Disposal or Retirement Phase 52
3.10.1 Engineering Process 52
3.10.2 Engineering Skills 53
3.11 Refurbishment Phase 53
3.11.1 Engineering Process 53
3.11.2 Engineering Skills 53
3.12 Whole Life Cycle Tasks 54
Exercises 55
References 55
Further Reading 56
4 Design Drivers 57
4.1 Introduction 57
4.2 Design Drivers in the Business Environment 59
4.2.1 Customer 59
4.2.2 Market and Competition 60
4.2.3 Capacity 61
4.2.4 Financial Issues 61
4.2.5 Defence Policy 61
4.2.6 Leisure and Business Interests 62
4.2.7 Politics 62
4.2.8 Technology 63
4.3 Design Drivers in the Project Environment 63
4.3.1 Standards and Regulations 63
4.3.2 Availability 64
4.3.3 Cost 65
4.3.4 Programme 65
4.3.5 Performance 65
4.3.6 Skills and Resources 66
4.3.7 Health, Safety and Environmental Issues 66
4.3.8 Risk 67
4.4 Design Drivers in the Product Environment 67
4.4.1 Functional Performance 67
4.4.2 Human/Machine Interface 68
4.4.3 Crew and Passengers 68
4.4.4 Stores and Cargo 69
4.4.5 Structure 69
4.4.6 Safety 70
4.4.7 Quality 70
4.4.8 Environmental Conditions 70
4.5 Drivers in the Product Operating Environment 71
4.5.1 Heat 71
4.5.2 Noise 72
4.5.3 RF Radiation 72
4.5.4 Solar Energy 73
4.5.5 Altitude 73
4.5.6 Temperature 74
4.5.7 Contaminants/Destructive Substances 74
4.5.8 Lightning 75
4.5.9 Nuclear, Biological and Chemical 75
4.5.10 Vibration 75
4.5.11 Shock 76
4.6 Interfaces with the Sub-System Environment 76
4.6.1 Physical Interfaces 76
4.6.2 Power Interfaces 77
4.6.3 Data Communication Interfaces 77
4.6.4 Input/Output Interfaces 78
4.6.5 Status/Discrete Data 78
4.7 Obsolescence 78
4.7.1 The Threat of Obsolescence in the Product Life Cycle 79
4.7.2 Managing Obsolescence 84
References 85
Further Reading 85
5 Systems Architectures 87
5.1 Introduction 87
5.2 Definitions 88
5.3 Systems Architectures 88
5.3.1 General Systems 92
5.3.2 Avionic Systems 92
5.3.3 Mission Systems 92
5.3.4 Cabin Systems 92
5.3.5 Data Bus 92
5.4 Architecture Modelling and Trade-off 93
5.5 Example of a Developing Architecture 95
5.6 Evolution of Avionics Architectures 96
5.6.1 Distributed Analogue Architecture 98
5.6.2 Distributed Digital Architecture 100
5.6.3 Federated Digital Architecture 101
5.6.4 Integrated Modular Architecture 103
References 106
Further Reading 106
6 Systems Integration 107
6.1 Introduction 107
6.2 Definitions 109
6.3 Examples of Systems Integration 109
6.3.1 Integration at the Component Level 109
6.3.2 Integration at the System Level 110
6.3.3 Integration at the Process Level 117
6.3.4 Integration at the Functional Level 120
6.3.5 Integration at the Information Level 123
6.3.6 Integration at the Prime Contractor Level 123
6.3.7 Integration Arising from Emergent Properties 124
6.4 System Integration Skills 126
6.5 Management of Systems Integration 128
6.5.1 Major Activities 128
6.5.2 Major Milestones 129
6.5.3 Decomposition and Definition Process 131
6.5.4 Integration and Verification Process 131
6.5.5 Component Engineering 131
6.6 Highly Integrated Systems 132
6.6.1 Integration of Primary Flight Control Systems 134
6.7 Discussion 135
References 137
Further Reading 137
7 Verification of System Requirements 139
7.1 Introduction 139
7.2 Gathering Qualification Evidence in the Life Cycle 140
7.3 Test Methods 143
7.3.1 Inspection of Design 143
7.3.2 Calculation 143
7.3.3 Analogy 144
7.3.4 Modelling and Simulation 144
7.3.5 Test Rigs 158
7.3.6 Environmental Testing 159
7.3.7 Integration Test Rigs 159
7.3.8 Flight Test 161
7.3.9 Trials 162
7.3.10 Operational Test 163
7.3.11 Demonstrations 163
7.4 An Example Using a Radar System 163
References 166
Further Reading 166
8 Practical Considerations 167
8.1 Introduction 167
8.2 Stakeholders 167
8.2.1 Identification of Stakeholders 167
8.2.2 Classification of Stakeholders 169
8.3 Communications 170
8.3.1 The Nature of Communication 171
8.3.2 Examples of Organisation Communication Media 173
8.3.3 The Cost of Poor Communication 174
8.3.4 A Lesson Learned 174
8.4 Giving and Receiving Criticism 177
8.4.1 The Need for Criticism in the Design Process 177
8.4.2 The Nature of Criticism 178
8.4.3 Behaviours Associated with Criticism 178
8.4.4 Conclusions 179
8.5 Supplier Relationships 179
8.6 Engineering Judgement 181
8.7 Complexity 181
8.8 Emergent Properties 182
8.9 Aircraft Wiring and Connectors 183
8.9.1 Aircraft Wiring 183
8.9.2 Aircraft Breaks 183
8.9.3 Wiring Bundle Definition 185
8.9.4 Wiring Routing 185
8.9.5 Wiring Sizing 186
8.9.6 Aircraft Electrical Signal Types 187
8.9.7 Electrical Segregation 188
8.9.8 The Nature of Aircraft Wiring and Connectors 189
8.9.9 Use of Twisted Pairs and Quads 190
8.10 Bonding and Grounding 192
References 194
Further Reading 194
9 Configuration Control 195
9.1 Introduction 195
9.2 Configuration Control Process 195
9.3 A Simple Portrayal of a System 196
9.4 Varying System Configurations 197
9.4.1 System Configuration A 198
9.4.2 System Configuration B 199
9.4.3 System Configuration C 200
9.5 Forwards and Backwards Compatibility 201
9.5.1 Forwards Compatibility 202
9.5.2 Backwards Compatibility 202
9.6 Factors Affecting Compatibility 203
9.6.1 Hardware 203
9.6.2 Software 203
9.6.3 Wiring 204
9.7 System Evolution 205
9.8 Configuration Control 206
9.8.1 Airbus A380 Example 208
9.9 Interface Control 210
9.9.1 Interface Control Document 210
9.9.2 Aircraft Level Data Bus Data 213
9.9.3 System Internal Data Bus Data 213
9.9.4 Internal System Input/Output Data 213
9.9.5 Fuel Component Interfaces 214
10 Aircraft System Examples 215
10.1 Introduction 215
10.2 Design Considerations 215
10.3 Safety and Economic Considerations 217
10.4 Failure Severity Categorisation 218
10.5 Design Assurance Levels 218
10.6 Redundancy 219
10.6.1 Architecture Options 220
10.6.2 System Examples 223
10.7 Integration of Aircraft Systems 226
10.7.1 Engine Control System 228
10.7.2 Flight Control System 229
10.7.3 Attitude Measurement System 230
10.7.4 Air Data System 231
10.7.5 Electrical Power System 232
10.7.6 Hydraulic Power System 233
10.8 Integration of Avionics Systems 233
References 237
11 Power Systems Issues 239
11.1 Introduction 239
11.2 Electrical System Description 239
11.3 Electrical Power Distribution System 241
11.3.1 Power Generation 241
11.3.2 Primary Power Distribution 242
11.3.3 Power Conversion 242
11.3.4 Secondary Power Distribution 242
11.4 Electrical System Design Issues 243
11.4.1 Engine Power Off-Takes 244
11.4.2 The Generator 244
11.4.3 Power Feeders 244
11.4.4 Generation Control 245
11.4.5 Power Switching 245
11.5 Hydraulic System Description 246
11.5.1 Engine-Driven Pump (EDP) 246
11.5.2 Hydraulic Accumulator 247
11.5.3 System Users 247
11.5.4 Power Transfer Unit 247
11.6 Hydraulic System Design Considerations 248
11.6.1 Hydraulic Power Generation 248
11.6.2 System Level Issues 249
11.6.3 Hydraulic Fluid 249
11.7 Aircraft System Energy Losses 250
11.8 Electrical System Power Dissipation 252
11.8.1 Constant Frequency System 253
11.8.2 Variable Frequency System 254
11.9 Hydraulic System Power Dissipation 254
11.9.1 Hydraulic Power Calculations 256
11.9.2 Operating Pressure 256
11.9.3 Rated Delivery Capacity 258
11.9.4 Boeing 767 - Entry into Service: 1982 (United Airlines) 258
11.9.5 Boeing 787 - Entry into Service: 2011 [All Nippon Airways] 258
11.9.6 Simple Hydraulic Power Models 259
11.10 More-Electric Aircraft Considerations 261
References 263
12 Key Characteristics of Aircraft Systems 265
12.1 Introduction 265
12.2 Aircraft Systems 267
12.3 Avionic Systems 280
12.4 Mission Systems 287
12.5 Sizing and Scoping Systems 292
12.6 Analysis of the Fuel Penalties of Aircraft Systems 294
12.6.1 Introduction 294
12.6.2 Basic Formulation of Fuel Weight Penalties of Systems 295
12.6.3 Application of Fuel Weight Penalties Formulation to Multi-Phase Flight 297
12.6.4 Analysis of Fuel Weight Penalties Formulation for Multi-Phase Flight 298
12.6.5 Use of Fuel Weight Penalties to Compare Systems 298
12.6.6 Determining Input Data for Systems Weight Penalties Analysis 299
Nomenclature Used 302
References 303
13 Conclusions 305
A Historical Footnote 306
References 307
Index 309
Series Preface xv
Acknowledgements xvi
Glossary xvii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 General 1
1.2 Systems Development 3
1.3 Skills 7
1.4 Overview 9
References 11
Further Reading 11
2 The Aircraft Systems 13
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Definitions 13
2.3 Everyday Examples of Systems 14
2.4 Aircraft Systems of Interest 17
2.4.1 Airframe Systems 22
2.4.2 Vehicle Systems 22
2.4.3 Interface Characteristics of Vehicle Systems 24
2.4.4 Avionics Systems 25
2.4.5 Characteristics of Vehicle and Avionics Systems 26
2.4.6 Mission Systems 26
2.4.7 Interface Characteristics of Mission Systems 27
2.5 Ground Systems 27
2.6 Generic System Definition 28
References 31
Further Reading 31
3 The Design and Development Process 33
3.1 Introduction 33
3.2 Definitions 34
3.3 The Product Life Cycle 35
3.4 Concept Phase 39
3.4.1 Engineering Process 40
3.4.2 Engineering Skills 42
3.5 Definition Phase 43
3.5.1 Engineering Process 43
3.5.2 Engineering Skills 44
3.6 Design Phase 47
3.6.1 Engineering Process 47
3.6.2 Engineering Skills 48
3.7 Build Phase 49
3.7.1 Engineering Process 49
3.7.2 Engineering Skills 49
3.8 Test Phase 50
3.8.1 Engineering Process 50
3.8.2 Engineering Skills 50
3.9 Operate Phase 51
3.9.1 Engineering Process 51
3.9.2 Engineering Skills 52
3.10 Disposal or Retirement Phase 52
3.10.1 Engineering Process 52
3.10.2 Engineering Skills 53
3.11 Refurbishment Phase 53
3.11.1 Engineering Process 53
3.11.2 Engineering Skills 53
3.12 Whole Life Cycle Tasks 54
Exercises 55
References 55
Further Reading 56
4 Design Drivers 57
4.1 Introduction 57
4.2 Design Drivers in the Business Environment 59
4.2.1 Customer 59
4.2.2 Market and Competition 60
4.2.3 Capacity 61
4.2.4 Financial Issues 61
4.2.5 Defence Policy 61
4.2.6 Leisure and Business Interests 62
4.2.7 Politics 62
4.2.8 Technology 63
4.3 Design Drivers in the Project Environment 63
4.3.1 Standards and Regulations 63
4.3.2 Availability 64
4.3.3 Cost 65
4.3.4 Programme 65
4.3.5 Performance 65
4.3.6 Skills and Resources 66
4.3.7 Health, Safety and Environmental Issues 66
4.3.8 Risk 67
4.4 Design Drivers in the Product Environment 67
4.4.1 Functional Performance 67
4.4.2 Human/Machine Interface 68
4.4.3 Crew and Passengers 68
4.4.4 Stores and Cargo 69
4.4.5 Structure 69
4.4.6 Safety 70
4.4.7 Quality 70
4.4.8 Environmental Conditions 70
4.5 Drivers in the Product Operating Environment 71
4.5.1 Heat 71
4.5.2 Noise 72
4.5.3 RF Radiation 72
4.5.4 Solar Energy 73
4.5.5 Altitude 73
4.5.6 Temperature 74
4.5.7 Contaminants/Destructive Substances 74
4.5.8 Lightning 75
4.5.9 Nuclear, Biological and Chemical 75
4.5.10 Vibration 75
4.5.11 Shock 76
4.6 Interfaces with the Sub-System Environment 76
4.6.1 Physical Interfaces 76
4.6.2 Power Interfaces 77
4.6.3 Data Communication Interfaces 77
4.6.4 Input/Output Interfaces 78
4.6.5 Status/Discrete Data 78
4.7 Obsolescence 78
4.7.1 The Threat of Obsolescence in the Product Life Cycle 79
4.7.2 Managing Obsolescence 84
References 85
Further Reading 85
5 Systems Architectures 87
5.1 Introduction 87
5.2 Definitions 88
5.3 Systems Architectures 88
5.3.1 General Systems 92
5.3.2 Avionic Systems 92
5.3.3 Mission Systems 92
5.3.4 Cabin Systems 92
5.3.5 Data Bus 92
5.4 Architecture Modelling and Trade-off 93
5.5 Example of a Developing Architecture 95
5.6 Evolution of Avionics Architectures 96
5.6.1 Distributed Analogue Architecture 98
5.6.2 Distributed Digital Architecture 100
5.6.3 Federated Digital Architecture 101
5.6.4 Integrated Modular Architecture 103
References 106
Further Reading 106
6 Systems Integration 107
6.1 Introduction 107
6.2 Definitions 109
6.3 Examples of Systems Integration 109
6.3.1 Integration at the Component Level 109
6.3.2 Integration at the System Level 110
6.3.3 Integration at the Process Level 117
6.3.4 Integration at the Functional Level 120
6.3.5 Integration at the Information Level 123
6.3.6 Integration at the Prime Contractor Level 123
6.3.7 Integration Arising from Emergent Properties 124
6.4 System Integration Skills 126
6.5 Management of Systems Integration 128
6.5.1 Major Activities 128
6.5.2 Major Milestones 129
6.5.3 Decomposition and Definition Process 131
6.5.4 Integration and Verification Process 131
6.5.5 Component Engineering 131
6.6 Highly Integrated Systems 132
6.6.1 Integration of Primary Flight Control Systems 134
6.7 Discussion 135
References 137
Further Reading 137
7 Verification of System Requirements 139
7.1 Introduction 139
7.2 Gathering Qualification Evidence in the Life Cycle 140
7.3 Test Methods 143
7.3.1 Inspection of Design 143
7.3.2 Calculation 143
7.3.3 Analogy 144
7.3.4 Modelling and Simulation 144
7.3.5 Test Rigs 158
7.3.6 Environmental Testing 159
7.3.7 Integration Test Rigs 159
7.3.8 Flight Test 161
7.3.9 Trials 162
7.3.10 Operational Test 163
7.3.11 Demonstrations 163
7.4 An Example Using a Radar System 163
References 166
Further Reading 166
8 Practical Considerations 167
8.1 Introduction 167
8.2 Stakeholders 167
8.2.1 Identification of Stakeholders 167
8.2.2 Classification of Stakeholders 169
8.3 Communications 170
8.3.1 The Nature of Communication 171
8.3.2 Examples of Organisation Communication Media 173
8.3.3 The Cost of Poor Communication 174
8.3.4 A Lesson Learned 174
8.4 Giving and Receiving Criticism 177
8.4.1 The Need for Criticism in the Design Process 177
8.4.2 The Nature of Criticism 178
8.4.3 Behaviours Associated with Criticism 178
8.4.4 Conclusions 179
8.5 Supplier Relationships 179
8.6 Engineering Judgement 181
8.7 Complexity 181
8.8 Emergent Properties 182
8.9 Aircraft Wiring and Connectors 183
8.9.1 Aircraft Wiring 183
8.9.2 Aircraft Breaks 183
8.9.3 Wiring Bundle Definition 185
8.9.4 Wiring Routing 185
8.9.5 Wiring Sizing 186
8.9.6 Aircraft Electrical Signal Types 187
8.9.7 Electrical Segregation 188
8.9.8 The Nature of Aircraft Wiring and Connectors 189
8.9.9 Use of Twisted Pairs and Quads 190
8.10 Bonding and Grounding 192
References 194
Further Reading 194
9 Configuration Control 195
9.1 Introduction 195
9.2 Configuration Control Process 195
9.3 A Simple Portrayal of a System 196
9.4 Varying System Configurations 197
9.4.1 System Configuration A 198
9.4.2 System Configuration B 199
9.4.3 System Configuration C 200
9.5 Forwards and Backwards Compatibility 201
9.5.1 Forwards Compatibility 202
9.5.2 Backwards Compatibility 202
9.6 Factors Affecting Compatibility 203
9.6.1 Hardware 203
9.6.2 Software 203
9.6.3 Wiring 204
9.7 System Evolution 205
9.8 Configuration Control 206
9.8.1 Airbus A380 Example 208
9.9 Interface Control 210
9.9.1 Interface Control Document 210
9.9.2 Aircraft Level Data Bus Data 213
9.9.3 System Internal Data Bus Data 213
9.9.4 Internal System Input/Output Data 213
9.9.5 Fuel Component Interfaces 214
10 Aircraft System Examples 215
10.1 Introduction 215
10.2 Design Considerations 215
10.3 Safety and Economic Considerations 217
10.4 Failure Severity Categorisation 218
10.5 Design Assurance Levels 218
10.6 Redundancy 219
10.6.1 Architecture Options 220
10.6.2 System Examples 223
10.7 Integration of Aircraft Systems 226
10.7.1 Engine Control System 228
10.7.2 Flight Control System 229
10.7.3 Attitude Measurement System 230
10.7.4 Air Data System 231
10.7.5 Electrical Power System 232
10.7.6 Hydraulic Power System 233
10.8 Integration of Avionics Systems 233
References 237
11 Power Systems Issues 239
11.1 Introduction 239
11.2 Electrical System Description 239
11.3 Electrical Power Distribution System 241
11.3.1 Power Generation 241
11.3.2 Primary Power Distribution 242
11.3.3 Power Conversion 242
11.3.4 Secondary Power Distribution 242
11.4 Electrical System Design Issues 243
11.4.1 Engine Power Off-Takes 244
11.4.2 The Generator 244
11.4.3 Power Feeders 244
11.4.4 Generation Control 245
11.4.5 Power Switching 245
11.5 Hydraulic System Description 246
11.5.1 Engine-Driven Pump (EDP) 246
11.5.2 Hydraulic Accumulator 247
11.5.3 System Users 247
11.5.4 Power Transfer Unit 247
11.6 Hydraulic System Design Considerations 248
11.6.1 Hydraulic Power Generation 248
11.6.2 System Level Issues 249
11.6.3 Hydraulic Fluid 249
11.7 Aircraft System Energy Losses 250
11.8 Electrical System Power Dissipation 252
11.8.1 Constant Frequency System 253
11.8.2 Variable Frequency System 254
11.9 Hydraulic System Power Dissipation 254
11.9.1 Hydraulic Power Calculations 256
11.9.2 Operating Pressure 256
11.9.3 Rated Delivery Capacity 258
11.9.4 Boeing 767 - Entry into Service: 1982 (United Airlines) 258
11.9.5 Boeing 787 - Entry into Service: 2011 [All Nippon Airways] 258
11.9.6 Simple Hydraulic Power Models 259
11.10 More-Electric Aircraft Considerations 261
References 263
12 Key Characteristics of Aircraft Systems 265
12.1 Introduction 265
12.2 Aircraft Systems 267
12.3 Avionic Systems 280
12.4 Mission Systems 287
12.5 Sizing and Scoping Systems 292
12.6 Analysis of the Fuel Penalties of Aircraft Systems 294
12.6.1 Introduction 294
12.6.2 Basic Formulation of Fuel Weight Penalties of Systems 295
12.6.3 Application of Fuel Weight Penalties Formulation to Multi-Phase Flight 297
12.6.4 Analysis of Fuel Weight Penalties Formulation for Multi-Phase Flight 298
12.6.5 Use of Fuel Weight Penalties to Compare Systems 298
12.6.6 Determining Input Data for Systems Weight Penalties Analysis 299
Nomenclature Used 302
References 303
13 Conclusions 305
A Historical Footnote 306
References 307
Index 309