Hybrid Electric Vehicles

About the Authors xvii Preface to the First Edition xxi Preface to the Second Edition xxv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Sustainable Transportation 2 1.1.1 Population, Energy, and Transportation 3 1.1.2 Environment 4 1.1.3 Economic Growth 7 1.1.4 New Fuel Economy Requirement 7 1.2 A Brief History of HEVs 7 1.3 Why EVs Emerged and Failed in the 1990s, and What We Can Learn 10 1.4 Architectures of HEVs 11 1.4.1 Series HEVs 12 1.4.2 Parallel HEVs 13 1.4.3 Series-Parallel HEVs 14 1.4.4 Complex HEVs 15 1.4.5 Diesel Hybrids 15 1.4.6 Other Approaches to Vehicle Hybridization 16 1.4.7 Hybridization Ratio 16 1.5 Interdisciplinary Nature of HEVs 17 1.6 State of the Art of HEVs 17 1.6.1 Toyota Prius 21 1.6.2 The Honda Civic 21 1.6.3 The Ford Escape 21 1.6.4 The Two?]Mode Hybrid 21 1.7 Challenges and Key Technology of HEVs 24 1.8 The Invisible Hand-Government Support 25 1.9 Latest Development in EV and HEV, China's Surge in EV Sales 27 References 29 2 Concept of Hybridization of the Automobile 31 2.1 Vehicle Basics 31 2.1.1 Constituents of a Conventional Vehicle 31 2.1.2 Vehicle and Propulsion Load 31 2.1.3 Drive Cycles and Drive Terrain 34 2.2 Basics of the EV 36 2.2.1 Why EV? 36 2.2.2 Constituents of an EV 36 2.2.3 Vehicle and Propulsion Loads 38 2.3 Basics of the HEV 39 2.3.1 Why HEV? 39 2.3.2 Constituents of an HEV 40 2.4 Basics of Plug?]In Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) 40 2.4.1 Why PHEV? 40 2.4.2 Constituents of a PHEV 41 2.4.3 Comparison of HEV and PHEV 42 2.5 Basics of Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCVs) 42 2.5.1 Why FCV? 42 2.5.2 Constituents of a FCV 43 2.5.3 Some Issues Related to Fuel Cells 43 Reference 43 3 HEV Fundamentals 45 3.1 Introduction 45 3.2 Vehicle Model 46 3.3 Vehicle Performance 49 3.4 EV Powertrain Component Sizing 52 3.5 Series Hybrid Vehicle 55 3.6 Parallel Hybrid Vehicle 60 3.6.1 Electrically Peaking Hybrid Concept 61 3.6.2 ICE Characteristics 66 3.6.3 Gradability Requirement 66 3.6.4 Selection of Gear Ratio from ICE to Wheel 67 3.7 Wheel Slip Dynamics 68 References 71 4 Advanced HEV Architectures and Dynamics of HEV Powertrain 73 4.1 Principle of Planetary Gears 73 4.2 Toyota Prius and Ford Escape Hybrid Powertrain 76 4.3 GM Two?]Mode Hybrid Transmission 80 4.3.1 Operating Principle of the Two?]Mode Powertrain 80 4.3.2 Mode 0: Vehicle Launch and Backup 81 4.3.3 Mode 1: Low Range 82 4.3.4 Mode 2: High Range 83 4.3.5 Mode 3: Regenerative Braking 84 4.3.6 Transition between Modes 0, 1, 2, and 3 84 4.4 Dual?]Clutch Hybrid Transmissions 87 4.4.1 Conventional DCT Technology 87 4.4.2 Gear Shift Schedule 87 4.4.3 DCT?]Based Hybrid Powertrain 88 4.4.4 Operation of DCT?]Based Hybrid Powertrain 90 4.4.4.1 Motor?]Alone Mode 90 4.4.4.2 Combined Mode 90 4.4.4.3 Engine?]Alone Mode 90 4.4.4.4 Regenerative Braking Mode 90 4.4.4.5 Power Split Mode 91 4.4.4.6 Standstill Charge Mode 91 4.4.4.7 Series Hybrid Mode 92 4.5 Hybrid Transmission Proposed by Zhang et al. 92 4.5.1 Motor?]Alone Mode 92 4.5.2 Combined Power Mode 93 4.5.3 Engine?]Alone Mode 94 4.5.4 Electric CVT Mode 94 4.5.5 Energy Recovery Mode 94 4.5.6 Standstill Mode 94 4.6 Renault IVT Hybrid Transmission 95 4.7 Timken Two?]Mode Hybrid Transmission 96 4.7.1 Mode 0: Launch and Reverse 96 4.7.2 Mode 1: Low?]Speed Operation 97 4.7.3 Mode 2: High?]Speed Operation 97 4.7.4 Mode 4: Series Operating Mode 97 4.7.5 Mode Transition 98 4.8 Tsai's Hybrid Transmission 99 4.9 Hybrid Transmission with Both Speed and Torque Coupling Mechanism 100 4.10 Toyota Highlander and Lexus Hybrid, E?]Four?]Wheel Drive 102 4.11 CAMRY Hybrid 103 4.12 Chevy Volt Powertrain 104 4.13 Non?]Ideal Gears in the Planetary System 106 4.14 Dynamics of the Transmission 107 4.15 Conclusions 108 References 108 5 Plug?]In Hybrid Electric Vehicles 111 5.1 Introduction to PHEVs 111 5.1.1 PHEVs and EREVs 111 5.1.2 Blended PHEVs 112 5.1.3 Why PHEV? 112 5.1.4 Electricity for PHEV Use 114 5.2 PHEV Architectures 115 5.3 Equivalent Electric Range of Blended PHEVs 115 5.4 Fuel Economy of PHEVs 116 5.4.1 Well?]to?]Wheel Efficiency 116 5.4.2 PHEV Fuel Economy 117 5.4.3 Utility Factor 118 5.5 Power Management of PHEVs 119 5.6 PHEV Design and Component Sizing 121 5.7 Component Sizing of EREVs 122 5.8 Component Sizing of Blended PHEVs 123 5.9 HEV to PHEV Conversions 123 5.9.1 Replacing the Existing Battery Pack 123 5.9.2 Adding an Extra Battery Pack 125 5.9.3 Converting Conventional Vehicles to PHEVs 126 5.10 Other Topics on PHEVs 126 5.10.1 End?]of?]Life Battery for Electric Power Grid Support 126 5.10.2 Cold Start Emissions Reduction in PHEVs 126 5.10.3 Cold Weather/Hot Weather Performance Enhancement in PHEVs 127 5.10.4 PHEV Maintenance 127 5.10.5 Safety of PHEVs 128 5.11 Vehicle?]to?]Grid Technology 129 5.11.1 PHEV Battery Charging 129 5.11.2 Impact of G2V 131 5.11.3 The Concept of V2G 135 5.11.4 Advantages of V2G 136 5.11.5 Case Studies of V2G 137 5.12 Conclusion 140 References 140 6 Special Hybrid Vehicles 143 6.1 Hydraulic Hybrid Vehicles 143 6.1.1 Regenerative Braking in HHVs 146 6.2 Off?]Road HEVs 148 6.2.1 Hybrid Excavators 151 6.2.2 Hybrid Excavator Design Considerations 157 6.3 Diesel HEVs 163 6.4 Electric or Hybrid Ships, Aircraft, and Locomotives 164 6.4.1 Ships 164 6.4.2 Aircraft 167 6.4.3 Locomotives 170 6.5 Other Industrial Utility Application Vehicles 172 References 173 Further Reading 174 7 HEV Applications for Military Vehicles 175 7.1 Why HEVs Can Be Beneficial for Military Applications 175 7.2 Ground Vehicle Applications 176 7.2.1 Architecture - Series, Parallel, Complex 176 7.2.2 Vehicles that Are of Most Benefit 178 7.3 Non?]Ground?]Vehicle Military Applications 180 7.3.1 Electromagnetic Launchers 181 7.3.2 Hybrid?]Powered Ships 181 7.3.3 Aircraft Applications 183 7.3.4 Dismounted Soldier Applications 183 7.4 Ruggedness Issues 185 References 186 Further Reading 187 8 Diagnostics, Prognostics, Reliability, EMC, and Other Topics Related to HEVs 189 8.1 Diagnostics and Prognostics in HEVs and EVs 189 8.1.1 Onboard Diagnostics 189 8.1.2 Prognostics Issues 192 8.2 Reliability of HEVs 195 8.2.1 Analyzing the Reliability of HEV Architectures 196 8.2.2 Reliability and Graceful Degradation 199 8.2.3 Software Reliability Issues 201 8.3 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Issues 203 8.4 Noise Vibration Harshness (NVH), Electromechanical, and Other Issues 205 8.5 End?]of?]Life Issues 207 References 208 Further Reading 209 9 Power Electronics in HEVs 211 9.1 Introduction 211 9.2 Principles of Power Electronics 212 9.3 Rectifiers Used in HEVs 214 9.3.1 Ideal Rectifier 214 9.3.2 Practical Rectifier 215 9.3.3 Single?]Phase Rectifier 216 9.3.4 Voltage Ripple 218 9.4 Buck Converter Used in HEVs 221 9.4.1 Operating Principle 221 9.4.2 Nonlinear Model 222 9.5 Non?]Isolated Bidirectional DC-DC Converter 223 9.5.1 Operating Principle 223 9.5.2 Maintaining Constant Torque Range and Power Capability 225 9.5.3 Reducing Current Ripple in the Battery 226 9.5.4 Regenerative Braking 228 9.6 Voltage Source Inverter 229 9.7 Current Source Inverter 229 9.8 Isolated Bidirectional DC-DC Converter 231 9.8.1 Basic Principle and Steady State Operations 231 9.8.1.1 Heavy Load Conditions 232 9.8.1.2 Light Load Condition 234 9.8.1.3 Output Voltage 234 9.8.1.4 Output Power 236 9.8.2 Voltage Ripple 236 9.9 PWM Rectifier in HEVs 242 9.9.1 Rectifier Operation of Inverter 242 9.10 EV and PHEV Battery Chargers 243 9.10.1 Forward/Flyback Converters 244 9.10.2 Half?]Bridge DC-DC Converter 245 9.10.3 Full?]Bridge DC-DC Converter 245 9.10.4 Power Factor Correction Stage 246 9.10.4.1 Decreasing Impact on the Grid 246 9.10.4.2 Decreasing the Impact on the Switches 247 9.10.5 Bidirectional Battery Chargers 247 9.10.6 Other Charger Topologies 249 9.10.7 Contactless Charging 249 9.10.8 Wireless Charging 250 9.11 Modeling and Simulation of HEV Power Electronics 251 9.11.1 Device?]Level Simulation 251 9.11.2 System?]Level Model 252 9.12 Emerging Power Electronics Devices 253 9.13 Circuit Packaging 254 9.14 Thermal Management of HEV Power Electronics 254 9.15 Conclusions 257 References 257 10 Electric Machines and Drives in HEVs 261 10.1 Introduction 261 10.2 Induction Motor Drives 262 10.2.1 Principle of Induction Motors 262 10.2.2 Equivalent Circuit of Induction Motor 265 10.2.3 Speed Control of Induction Machine 267 10.2.4 Variable Frequency, Variable Voltage Control of Induction Motors 269 10.2.5 Efficiency and Losses of Induction Machine 270 10.2.6 Additional Loss in Induction Motors Due to PWM Supply 271 10.2.7 Field?]Oriented Control of Induction Machine 278 10.3 Permanent Magnet Motor Drives 287 10.3.1 Basic Configuration of PM Motors 287 10.3.2 Basic Principle and Operation of PM Motors 290 10.3.3 Magnetic Circuit Analysis of IPM Motors 295 10.3.3.1 Unsaturated Motor 300 10.3.3.2 Saturated Motor 301 10.3.3.3 Operation under Load 303 10.3.3.4 Flux Concentration 303 10.3.4 Sizing of Magnets in PM Motors 304 10.3.4.1 Input Power 306 10.3.4.2 Direct?]Axis Armature Reaction Factor 306 10.3.4.3 Magnetic Usage Ratio and Flux Leakage Coefficient 306 10.3.4.4 Maximum Armature Current 307 10.3.4.5 Inner Power Angle 307 10.3.5 Eddy Current Losses in the Magnets of PM Machines 308 10.4 Switched Reluctance Motors 310 10.5 Doubly Salient Permanent Magnet Machines 311 10.6 Design and Sizing of Traction Motors 315 10.6.1 Selection of A and B 315 10.6.2 Speed Rating of the Traction Motor 316 10.6.3 Determination of the Inner Power 316 10.7 Thermal Analysis and Modeling of Traction Motors 316 10.7.1 The Thermal Resistance of the Air Gap, Rag 317 10.7.2 The Radial Conduction Thermal Resistance of the Rotor Core, Rrs 318 10.7.3 The Radial Conduction Thermal Resistance of the Poles, Rmr 319 10.7.4 The Thermal Resistance of the Shaft, Rshf 319 10.7.5 The Radial Conduction Thermal Resistance of Stator Teeth, Rst 320 10.7.6 The Radial Conduction Thermal Resistance of the Stator Yoke, Rsy 320 10.7.7 The Conduction Thermal Resistance between the Windings and Stator, Rws 320 10.7.8 Convective Thermal Resistance Between Windings External to the Stator and Adjoining Air, Rwa 321 10.8 Conclusions 323 References 323 11 Electric Energy Sources and Storage Devices 333 11.1 Introduction 333 11.2 Characterization of Batteries 335 11.2.1 Battery Capacity 335 11.2.2 Energy Stored in a Battery 335 11.2.3 State of Charge in Battery (SOC) and Measurement of SOC 335 11.2.3.1 SOC Determination 336 11.2.3.2 Direct measurement 336 11.2.3.3 Amp?]hr Based Measurement 337 11.2.3.4 Some Better Methods 337 11.2.3.5 Initialization Process 338 11.2.4 Depth of Discharge (DOD) of a Battery 339 11.2.5 Specific Power and Energy Density 339 11.2.6 Ampere?]Hour (Charge and Discharge) Efficiency 339 11.2.7 Number of Deep Cycles and Battery Life 340 11.2.8 Some Practical Issues About Batteries and Battery Life 341 11.2.8.1 Acronyms and Definitions 344 11.2.8.2 State of Health Issue in Batteries 348 11.2.8.3 Two?]Pulse Load Method to Evaluate State of Health of a Battery [4, 6] 349 11.2.8.4 Battery Management Implementation 352 11.2.8.5 What to Do with All the Above Information 353 11.3 Comparison of Energy Storage Technologies 355 11.3.1 Lead Acid Battery 355 11.3.2 Nickel Metal Hydride Battery 356 11.3.3 Lithium?]Ion Battery 356 11.4 Ultracapacitors 356 11.5 Electric Circuit Model for Batteries and Ultracapacitors 358 11.5.1 Battery Modeling 358 11.5.2 Electric Circuit Models for Ultracapacitors 359 11.6 Flywheel Energy Storage System 361 11.7 Fuel Cell Based Hybrid Vehicular Systems 364 11.7.1 Introduction to Fuel Cells 364 11.7.1.1 Types of Fuel Cells 364 11.7.2 System Level Applications 364 11.7.3 Fuel Cell Modeling 366 11.8 Summary and Discussion 368 References 369 Further Reading 369 12 Battery Modeling 371 12.1 Introduction 371 12.2 Modeling of Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) Battery 372 12.2.1 Chemistry of an NiMH Battery 372 12.3 Modeling of Lithium?]Ion (Li?]Ion) Battery 374 12.3.1 Chemistry in Li?]Ion Battery 374 12.4 Parameter Estimation for Battery Models 375 12.5 Example Case of Using Battery Model in an EV System 377 12.6 Summary and Observations on Modeling and Simulation for Batteries 382 References 383 Further Reading 383 13 EV and PHEV Battery Charger Design 385 13.1 Introduction 385 13.2 Main Features of the LLC Resonant Charger 387 13.2.1 Analysis in the Time Domain 387 13.2.2 Operation Modes and Distribution Analysis 389 13.3 Design Considerations for an LLC Converter for a PHEV Battery Charger 393 13.4 Charging Trajectory Design 396 13.4.1 Key Design Parameters 396 13.4.2 Design Constraints 399 13.5 Design Procedures 401 13.6 Experimental Results 401 13.7 Conclusions 407 References 407 14 Modeling and Simulation of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles 409 14.1 Introduction 409 14.2 Fundamentals of Vehicle System Modeling 410 14.3 HEV Modeling Using ADVISOR 412 14.4 HEV Modeling Using PSAT 416 14.5 Physics?]Based Modeling 416 14.5.1 RCF Modeling Technique 417 14.5.2 Hybrid Powertrain Modeling 418 14.5.3 Modeling of a DC Machine 418 14.5.4 Modeling of DC-DC Boost Converter 419 14.5.5 Modeling of Vehicle Dynamics 420 14.5.6 Wheel Slip Model 421 14.6 Bond Graph and Other Modeling Techniques 424 14.6.1 Bond Graph Modeling for HEVs 424 14.6.2 HEV Modeling Using PSIM 425 14.6.3 HEV Modeling Using Simplorer and V?]Elph 427 14.7 Consideration of Numerical Integration Methods 428 14.8 Conclusion 428 References 428 15 HEV Component Sizing and Design Optimization 433 15.1 Introduction 433 15.2 Global Optimization Algorithms for HEV Design 434 15.2.1 DIRECT 434 15.2.2 Simulated Annealing 438 15.2.2.1 Algorithm Description 438 15.2.2.2 Tunable Parameters 439 15.2.2.3 Flow Chart 440 15.2.3 Genetic Algorithms 441 15.2.3.1 Flow Chart 441 15.2.3.2 Operators and Selection Method 441 15.2.3.3 Tunable Parameters 443 15.2.4 Particle Swarm Optimization 443 15.2.4.1 Algorithm Description 443 15.2.4.2 Flow Chart 444 15.2.5 Advantages/Disadvantages of Different Optimization Algorithms 444 15.2.5.1 DIRECT 444 15.2.5.2 SA 445 15.2.5.3 GA 445 15.2.5.4 PSO 446 15.3 Model?]in?]the?]Loop Design Optimization Process 446 15.4 Parallel HEV Design Optimization Example 447 15.5 Series HEV Design Optimization Example 452 15.5.1 Control Framework of a Series HEV Powertrain 454 15.5.2 Series HEV Parameter Optimization 454 15.5.3 Optimization Results 456 15.6 Conclusion 459 References 459 16 Wireless Power Transfer for Electric Vehicle Applications 461 16.1 Introduction 461 16.2 Fundamental Theory 464 16.3 Magnetic Coupler Design 468 16.3.1 Coupler for Stationary Charging 469 16.3.2 Coupler for Dynamic Charging 471 16.4 Compensation Network 473 16.5 Power Electronics Converters and Power Control 475 16.6 Methods of Study 477 16.7 Additional Discussion 479 16.7.1 Safety Concerns 479 16.7.2 Vehicle to Grid Benefits 481 16.7.3 Wireless Communications 481 16.7.4 Cost 481 16.8 A Double?]Sided LCC Compensation Topology and its Parameter Design 482 16.8.1 The Double?]Sided LCC Compensation Topology 482 16.8.2 Parameter Tuning for Zero Voltage Switching 486 16.8.3 Parameter Design 491 16.8.4 Simulation and Experiment Results 495 16.8.4.1 Simulation Results 495 16.8.4.2 Experimental Results 497 16.9 An LCLC Based Wireless Charger Using Capacitive Power Transfer Principle 502 16.9.1 Circuit Topology Design 504 16.9.2 Capacitance Analysis 506 16.9.3 A 2.4 kW CPT System Design 506 16.9.4 Experiment 507 16.10 Summary 511 References 511 17 Vehicular Power Control Strategy and Energy Management 521 17.1 A Generic Framework, Definition, and Needs 521 17.2 Methodology to Implement 523 17.2.1 Methodologies for Optimization 528 17.2.2 Cost Function Optimization 531 17.3 Benefits of Energy Management 536 References 536 Further Reading 537 18 Commercialization and Standardization of HEV Technology and Future Transportation 539 18.1 What Is Commercialization and Why Is It Important for HEVs? 539 18.2 Advantages, Disadvantages, and Enablers of Commercialization 539 18.3 Standardization and Commercialization 540 18.4 Commercialization Issues and Effects on Various Types of Vehicles 541 18.5 Commercialization of HEVs for Trucks and Off?]Road Applications 542 18.6 Commercialization and Future of HEVs and Transportation 543 Further Reading 543 19 A Holistic Perspective on Vehicle Electrification 545 19.1 Vehicle Electrification - What Does it Involve? 545 19.2 To What Extent Should Vehicles Be Electrified? 545 19.3 What Other Industries Are Involved or Affected in Vehicle Electrification? 547 19.4 A More Complete Picture Towards Vehicle Electrification 548 19.5 The Ultimate Issue: To Electrify Vehicles or Not? 551 Further Reading 553 Index 555