Principles of Lithography

Chapter 1 Overview of Lithography
Problems
Chapter 2 Optical Pattern Formation
2.1 The Problem of Imaging
2.2 Aerial Images
2.3 The Contributions of Physics and Chemistry
2.4 Focus
Problems
References
Chapter 3 Photoresists
3.1 Positive and Negative Resists
3.2 Adhesion Promotion
3.3 Resist Spin Coating, Softbake, and Hardbake
3.4 Photochemistry of Novolak/DNQ g- and i-line Resists
3.5 Acid-Catalyzed DUV Resists
3.6 Development and Post-Exposure Bakes
3.7 Operational Characterization
3.8 Line-Edge Roughness
3.9 Multilayer Resist Processes
Problems
References
Chapter 4 Modeling and Thin-Film Effects
4.1 Models of Optical Imaging
4.2 Aberrations
4.3 Modeling Photochemical Reactions
4.4 Thin-Film Optical Effects
4.5 Post-Exposure Bakes
4.6 Methods for Addressing the Problems of Reflective Substrates
4.7 Development
4.8 Quantum Effects and Modeling
4.9 Summary of Modeling
Problems
References
Chapter 5 Wafer Steppers and Scanners
5.1 Overview
5.2 Light Sources
5.3 Illumination Systems
5.4 Reduction Lenses
5.5 Autofocus Systems
5.6 The Wafer Stage
5.7 Scanning
5.8 Dual-Stage Exposure Tools
5.9 Lithography Exposure Tools before Steppers
Problems
References
Chapter 6 Overlay
6.1 Alignment Systems
6.1.1 Classification of alignment systems
6.1.2 Optical methods for alignment and wafer-to-reticle referencing
6.1.3 Number of alignment marks
6.2 Overlay Models
6.3 Matching
6.4 Process-Dependent Overlay Effects
Problems
References
Chapter 7 Masks and Reticles
7.1 Overview
7.2 Mask Blanks
7.3 Mechanical Optical-Pattern Generators
7.4 Electron-Beam Lithography and Single-Beam Mask Writers
7.5 Multi-Electron-Beam Mask Writers
7.6 Optical Mask Writers
7.7 Resists for Mask Making
7.8 Etching
7.9 Pellicles
7.10 Mask-Defect Inspection and Repair
Problems
References
Chapter 8 Confronting the Diffraction Limit
8.1 Off-Axis Illumination
8.2 Optical Proximity Effects
8.3 The Mask-Error Enhancement Factor (MEEF)
8.4 Phase-Shifting Masks
8.5 Putting It All Together
Problems
References
Chapter 9 Metrology
9.1 Linewidth Measurement
9.1.1 Linewidth measurement using scanning electron microscopes
9.1.2 Scatterometry
9.1.3 Electrical linewidth measurement
9.2 Measurement of Overlay
Problems
References
Chapter 10 Immersion Lithography and the Limits of Optical Lithography
10.1 Immersion Lithography
10.2 The Diffraction Limit
10.3 Improvements in Optics
10.4 Maximum Numerical Aperture
10.5 The Shortest Wavelength
10.6 Improved Photoresists
10.7 Flatter Wafers
10.8 How Low Can k1 Go?
10.9 How Far Can Optical Lithography Be Extended?
10.10 Multiple Patterning
10.11 Interferometric Lithography
Problems
References
Chapter 11 Lithography Costs
11.1 Cost-of-Ownership
11.1.1 Capital costs
11.1.2 Consumables
11.1.3 Mask costs
11.1.4 Rework
11.1.5 Metrology
11.1.6 Maintenance costs
11.1.7 Labor costs
11.1.8 Facilities costs
11.2 Mix-and-Match Strategies
Problems
References
Chapter 12 Extreme Ultraviolet Lithography
12.1 Background and Multilayer Reflectors
12.2 EUV Lithography System Overview
12.3 EUV Masks
12.4 Sources and Illuminators
12.5 EUV Optics
12.6 EUV Resists
Problems
References
Chapter 13 Alternative Lithography Techniques
13.1 Proximity X-ray Lithography
13.2 Electron-Beam Direct-Write Lithography
13.2.1 Single-beam direct-write systems
13.2.2 Multiple-electron-beam direct-write systems
13.2.3 Cell-projection lithography
13.2.4 Scattering-mask electron-projection lithography
13.3 Ion-Projection Lithography
13.4 Imprint Lithography
13.5 Directed Self-Assembly
Problems
References
Appendix A Coherence
Problems
References