Physics and Chemistry of Lakes

1 Global Distribution of Lakes.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Background Material and Approaches to Global Lake Census.- 2.1 Data Used.- 2.2 Approaches to Global Lake Census.- 3 General Laws of Lake Distribution.- 3.1 Lake Density.- 3.2 Limnic Ratio.- 4, Distribution of Lakes of Tectonic Origin.- 5 Lakes of Glacial Origin.- 5.1 Lake Densities.- 5.2 Global Deglaciated Area.- 5.3 Total Number of Glacial Lakes.- 6 Fluvial Lakes.- 7 Global Distribution of Crater Lakes.- 8 Global Distribution of Saline Lakes.- 8.1 Coastal Lagoons.- 8.2 Salinized Lakes due to Evaporation.- 9 Global Lake Distribution.- 9.1 Extrapolation Approach.- 9.2 Lake Type Approach.- 9.3 Climatic Typology Approach.- 9.4 Lake Distribution in Endorheic Areas.- 9.5 Global Dissolved Salt Distribution in Lakes.- 10 Major Changes in Global Lake Distribution in the Geological Past.- 10.1 Lake Ages.- 10.2 Historical Changes.- 10.3 Postglacial Changes.- 11 Discussion and Conclusions.- References.- 2 Hydrological Processes and the Water Budget of Lakes.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Hydrological System with Regard to Lakes.- 2.1 Interaction of Lakes with Atmospheric Water.- 2.2 Interaction of Lakes with Surface Water.- 2.3 Interaction of Lakes with Subsurface Water.- 2.4 Change in Lake Volume.- 3 Summary.- References.- 3 Hydrological and Thermal Response of Lakes to Climate: Description and Modeling.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Hydrological Response.- 3 The Hydrological Budget.- 4 Hydrological Models.- 5 Thermal Response.- 5.1 Energy Budget and Energy Budget Models.- 5.2 Models and Modeling.- 6 Use of Models to Link Lakes with Climate Change.- 7 Input Data Sets.- 8 Sample Applications.- 9 Summary.- References.- 4 Mixing Mechanisms in Lakes.- 1 Transport and Mixing.- 2 Lakes as Physical Systems.- 3 Fluid Dynamics: Mathematical Description of Advection and Diffusion.- 3.1 Equations of Fluid Motion.- 3.2 Turbulence, Reynolds' Stress, and Eddy Diffusion.- 3.3 Vertical Momentum Equation.- 3.4 Nonlocal Diffusion and Transilient Mixing.- 4 Density and Stability of Water Column.- 4.1 Equation of State of Water.- 4.2 Potential Temperature and Local Vertical Stability.- 5 Energy Fluxes: Driving Forces Behind Transport and Mixing.- 5.1 Thermal Energy.- 5.2 Potential Energy.- 5.3 Kinetic Energy.- 5.4 Turbulent Kinetic Energy Balance in Stratified Water.- 5.5 Internal Turbulent Energy Fluxes: Turbulence Cascade.- 6 Mixing Processes in Lakes.- 6.1 Waves and Mixing.- 6.2 Mixing in the Surface Layer.- 6.3 Diapycnal Mixing.- 6.4 Boundary Mixing.- 6.5 Double Diffusion.- 6.6 Isopycnal Mixing.- 7 Mixing and Its Ecological Relevance.- 7.1 Time Scales of Mixing.- 7.2 Reactive Species and Patchiness.- 7.3 Mixing and Growth: The Search for an Ecological Steering Factor.- References.- 5 Stable Isotopes of Fresh and Saline Lakes.- 1 Introduction.- 1.1 Isotope Separation During Evaporation.- 2 Small-Area Lakes.- 2.1 Seasonal and Annual Changes.- 2.2 Deep Freshwater Lakes.- 2.3 Transient Surface-Water Bodies.- 3 Interactive and Feedback Systems.- 3.1 Network of Surface-Water Bodies.- 3.2 Recycling of Reevaporated Moisture into the Atmosphere.- 3.3 Large Lakes.- 3.4 Large-Area Lakes with Restricted Circulation.- 4 Saline Lakes.- 4.1 Isotope Hydrology of Large Salt Lakes.- 4.2 Ephemeral Salt Lakes and Sabkhas.- 5 Isotopic Paleolimnology.- 6 Conclusions: From Lakes to Oceans.- References.- 6 Exchange of Chemicals Between the Atmosphere and Lakes.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Air-Water Partitioning Equilibria.- 3 Diffusion Between Water and Air.- 4 Volatilization and Absorption: Double-Resistance Approach.- 5 Factors Affecting Mass-Transfer Coefficients.- 6 Partitioning of Chemical to Particulate Matter in Air and Water.- 6.1 Air.- 6.2 Water.- 7 Atmospheric Deposition Processes.- 7.1 Dry Deposition.- 7.2 Wet Deposition.- 8 Specimen Calculation.- 8.1 Step 1: Physicochemical Properties.- 8.2 Step 2: Mass-Transfer Coefficients.- 8.3 Step 3: Sorption in Air and Water.- 8.4 Step 4: Equilibrium Status.- 8.5 Step 5: Volatilization and Deposition Rates.- 9 Role of Air-Water Exchange in Lake Mass Balances.- 10 Case Studies.- 10.1 Mass Balance on Siskiwit Lake, Isle Royale.- 10.2 Mass Balance on Lake Superior.- 10.3 Air-Water Exchange in Green Bay, Lake Michigan.- 10.4 Air-Water Exchange in Lake Superior.- 11 Conclusions.- References.- 7 Atmospheric Depositions: Impact of Acids on Lakes.- Abstract.- 1 Introduction: Anthropogenic Generation of Acidity.- 1.1 Genesis of Acid Precipitation.- 2 Acidity and Alkalinity: Neutralizing Capacities.- 2.1 Transfer of Acidity (or Alkalinity) from Pollution Through the Atmosphere to Ecosystems.- 3 Acidification of Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems.- 3.1 Disturbance of H+ Balance from Temporal or Spatial Decoupling of the Production and Mineralization of the Biomass.- 3.2 In Situ H+ Ion Neutralization in Lakes.- 3.3 Krug and Frink Revisited.- 4 Brønsted Acids and Lewis Acids: Pollution by Heavy Metals, as Influenced by Acidity.- 4.1 Cycling of Metals.- 4.2 Pb in Soils.- 5 Impact of Acidity on Ecology in Watersheds.- 5.1 Soils.- 5.2 Lakes.- 5.3 Nitrogen Saturation of Forests.- 6 Critical Loads.- 6.1 Critical Load Maps.- 6.2 Models for Critical Load Evaluation.- 7 Case Studies.- 7.1 Chemical Weathering of Crystalline Rocks in the Catchment Area of Acidic Ticino Lakes, Switzerland.- 7.2 Watershed Manipulation Project at Bear Brooks, Maine.- 8 Summary.- References.- 8Redox-Driven Cycling of Trace Elements in Lakes.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Major Biogeochemical Cycles and Pathways.- 3 Iron and Manganese.- 3.1 Transformations and Cycling.- 3.2 Iron and Manganese Compounds as Carrier Phases.- 4 Sediment-Water Interface.- 4.1 Diffusive Flux from Sediments.- 4.2 Evidence of Little or No Diffusive Efflux from Sediments.- 4.3 Transient Remobilization.- 4.4 Diffusive Flux into Sediments.- 5 Pathways Involving Redox Reactions Directly: Case Studies.- 5.1 Arsenic.- 5.2 Chromium.- 5.3 239,24opu.- 5.4 Selenium.- 6 Pathways Involving Redox Reactions Indirectly: Case Studies.- 6.1 137Cs.- 6.2 Stable Pb, 210Pb, and 210Po.- 6.3 Zinc.- 7 Summary and Conclusions.- References.- 9Comparative Geochemistry of Marine Saline Lakes.- 1 Introduction.- 2 General Characteristics of Marine Saline Lakes.- 3 Comparative Sediment-Pore-Water Reactions.- 3.1 Mangrove Lake, Bermuda.- 3.2 Solar Lake, Sinai.- 4 Conclusions.- References.- 10 Organic Matter Accumulation Records in Lake Sediments.- 1 Introduction.- 1.1 Significance of Organic Matter in Lake Sediments.- 1.2 Origins of Organic Matter to Lake Sediments.- 1.3 Alterations of Organic Matter During Deposition.- 1.4 Similarities and Differences Between Organic Matter in Sediments of Lakes and Oceans.- 1.5 Dating of Lake-Sediment Records.- 2 Indicators of Sources and Alterations of Total Organic Matter in Lake Sediments.- 2.1 Source Information Preserved in C/N Ratios of Sedimentary Organic Matter.- 2.2 Source Information from Carbon-Stable Isotopic Compositions.- 2.3 Source Information from Nitrogen-Stable Isotopic Compositions.- 3 Origin and Alterations of Humic Substances.- 4 Sources and Alterations of Lipid Biomarkers.- 4.1 Alteration of Lipids During Deposition.- 4.2 Changes in Sources vs Selective Diagenesis.- 4.3 Effects of Sediment Grain Size on Geolipid Compositions.- 4.4 Source Records of Alkanes in Lake Sediments.- 4.5 Preservation and Degradation of Fatty Acids in Lake Sediments.- 4.6 Sources and Diagenesis of Sterols in Lake Sediments.- 4.7 Origins and Significance of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Lake Sediments.- 4.8 "Free"and "Bound" Geolipid Fractions of Lake Sediments.- 5 Sources and Alterations of Pigments in Lake Sediments.- 6 Sources and Diagenesis of Lignins and Their Derivatives.- 7 Diagenesis of Carbohydrates and Proteins in Lake Sediments.- 8 Paleolimnological Organic Geochemistry.- 8.1 Organic-Matter Record in the Laurentian Great Lakes of North America.- 8.2 Organic-Matter Record in Lake Biwa, Japan.- 8.3 Organic-Matter Record in Greifensee, Switzerland.- 8.4 Organic-Matter Record in Lake Washington, Washington, USA.- 8.5 PAH Records of Greifensee and Lake Washington Sediments.- 9 Organic Geochemical Records of Ancient Lakes.- 10 Summary.- References.- Lake Index.