Electric Vehicle Technology Explained

About the Author xiii Preface xv Acknowledgments xvii Abbreviations xix Symbols xxiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 A Brief History 2 1.2 Electric Vehicles and the Environment 13 1.3 Usage Patterns for Electric Road Vehicles 15 Further Reading 17 2 Types of Electric Vehicles - EV Architecture 19 2.1 Battery Electric Vehicles 19 2.2 The IC Engine/Electric Hybrid Vehicle 19 2.3 Fuelled EVs 24 2.4 EVs using Supply Lines 25 2.5 EVs which use Flywheels or Supercapacitors 25 2.6 Solar-Powered Vehicles 26 2.7 Vehicles using Linear Motors 27 2.8 EVs for the Future 27 Further Reading 27 3 Batteries, Flywheels and Supercapacitors 29 3.1 Introduction 29 3.2 Battery Parameters 30 3.3 Lead Acid Batteries 36 3.4 Nickel-Based Batteries 41 3.5 Sodium-Based Batteries 46 3.6 Lithium Batteries 50 3.7 Metal-Air Batteries 52 3.8 Supercapacitors and Flywheels 54 3.9 Battery Charging 59 3.10 The Designer's Choice of Battery 63 3.11 Use of Batteries in Hybrid Vehicles 64 3.12 Battery Modelling 65 3.13 In Conclusion 77 References 78 4 Electricity Supply 79 4.1 Normal Existing Domestic and Industrial Electricity Supply 79 4.2 Infrastructure Needed for Charging Electric Vehicles 80 4.3 Electricity Supply Rails 81 4.4 Inductive Power Transfer for Moving Vehicles 82 4.5 Battery Swapping 84 Further Reading 85 5 Fuel Cells 87 5.1 Fuel Cells - A Real Option? 87 5.2 Hydrogen Fuel Cells - Basic Principles 89 5.3 Fuel Cell Thermodynamics - An Introduction 95 5.4 Connecting Cells in Series - The Bipolar Plate 102 5.5 Water Management in the PEMFC 106 5.6 Thermal Management of the PEMFC 110 5.7 A Complete Fuel Cell System 111 5.8 Practical Efficiency of Fuel Cells 114 References 114 6 Hydrogen as a Fuel - Its Production and Storage 115 6.1 Introduction 115 6.2 Hydrogen as a Fuel 117 6.3 Fuel Reforming 118 6.4 Energy Efficiency of Reforming 124 6.5 Hydrogen Storage I - Storage as Hydrogen 124 6.6 Hydrogen Storage II - Chemical Methods 132 References 143 7 Electric Machines and their Controllers 145 7.1 The 'Brushed' DC Electric Motor 145 7.2 DC Regulation and Voltage Conversion 159 7.3 Brushless Electric Motors 169 7.4 Motor Cooling, Efficiency, Size and Mass 179 7.5 Electric Machines for Hybrid Vehicles 182 7.6 Linear Motors 185 References 185 8 Electric Vehicle Modelling 187 8.1 Introduction 187 8.2 Tractive Effort 188 8.3 Modelling Vehicle Acceleration 191 8.4 Modelling Electric Vehicle Range 198 8.5 Simulations - A Summary 215 References 216 9 Design Considerations 217 9.1 Introduction 217 9.2 Aerodynamic Considerations 217 9.3 Consideration of Rolling Resistance 222 9.4 Transmission Efficiency 223 9.5 Consideration of Vehicle Mass 227 9.6 Electric Vehicle Chassis and Body Design 229 9.7 General Issues in Design 237 10 Design of Ancillary Systems 239 10.1 Introduction 239 10.2 Heating and Cooling Systems 239 10.3 Design of the Controls 242 10.4 Power Steering 244 10.5 Choice of Tyres 245 10.6 Wing Mirrors, Aerials and Luggage Racks 245 10.7 Electric Vehicle Recharging and Refuelling Systems 245 11 Efficiencies and Carbon Release Comparison 247 11.1 Introduction 247 11.2 Definition of Efficiency 248 11.3 Carbon Dioxide Emission and Chemical Energy in Fuel 248 12 Electric Vehicles and the Environment 253 12.1 Introduction 253 12.2 Vehicle Pollution - The Effects 253 12.3 Vehicle Pollution in Context 256 12.4 The Role of Regulations and Lawmakers 256 Further Reading 258 13 Power Generation for Transport - Particularly for Zero Emissions 259 13.1 Introduction 259 13.2 Power Generation using Fossil Fuels 260 13.3 Alternative and Sustainable Energy 260 13.4 Nuclear Energy 267 13.5 In Conclusion 269 Further Reading 269 14 Recent Electric Vehicles 271 14.1 Introduction 271 14.2 Low-Speed Rechargeable Battery Vehicles 271 14.3 Battery-Powered Cars and Vans 274 14.4 Hybrid Vehicles 279 14.5 Fuel-Cell-Powered Bus 284 14.6 Conventional High-Speed Trains 286 14.7 Conclusion 289 References 290 15 The Future of Electric Vehicles 291 15.1 Introduction 291 15.2 The Tesla S 291 15.3 The Honda FCX Clarity 292 15.4 Maglev Trains 292 15.5 Electric Road-Rail Systems 294 15.6 Conclusion 295 Further Reading 296 Appendices: MATLAB(r) Examples 297 Appendix 1: Performance Simulation of the GM EV1 297 Appendix 2: Importing and Creating Driving Cycles 298 Appendix 3: Simulating One Cycle 300 Appendix 4: Range Simulation of the GM EV1 Electric Car 302 Appendix 5: Electric Scooter Range Modelling 304 Appendix 6: Fuel Cell Range Simulation 306 Appendix 7: Motor Efficiency Plots 308 Index 311