Water Resources

Series Editor Foreword Challenges in Water Management xi
Foreword xiii
Preface xv
Acknowledgements xvii
List of Abbreviations xix
Units and Conversion xxi
Glossary xxiii
Part I Setting the Scene 1
1 Water Resources in the Twenty-First Century 3
1.1 A Looming Crisis 3
1.2 Human Interactions with Water in the Biosphere 4
1.3 An Inspiring Challenge 6
References 6
2 Fundamentals of Water Management 7
2.1 The Planetary Picture 7
2.1.1 The Blue Planet 7
2.1.2 Water and the Biosphere 8
2.1.3 Distinguishing between Hydrology and Water Resources 10
2.2 Evolution of Water Resource Systems 11
2.2.1 Hydroclimates and Water Resources 12
2.2.2 Mechanisms of Human Interactions with Water Fluxes 18
2.2.3 Anthropogenic Influence: The Traditional Urban Water Cycle 20
2.2.3.1 Abstraction 22
2.2.3.2 Storage 22
2.2.3.3 Water Supply Distribution Systems 23
2.2.3.4 Urban Land Use and Stormwater Runoff 23
2.2.3.5 Sewerage Systems 23
2.2.3.6 Wastewater Treatment and Discharge 23
2.2.4 Anthropogenic Influence: Advancements in the Urban Water Cycle 24
2.2.4.1 Desalination 24
2.2.4.2 Reuse 24
2.2.4.3 Managed Aquifer Recharge 25
2.2.4.6 Water Transfers 25
2.2.5 Anthropogenic Influence: Agriculture 25
2.3 Water, Society and the Biosphere 26
2.3.1 Water and Civilisation 26
2.3.2 The Human Right to Water 27
2.3.3 Population Growth and Mobility 29
2.3.4 Disparity between Water Resources and Population 30
2.3.5 Ability to Access Local Water Resources 30
2.3.6 Different Types of Water Scarcity 32
2.3.7 Ability to Access Distant Water Resources 33
2.3.8 Modern Water Politics 33
References 37
Part II Stresses and Strains 41
3 Key Concepts 43
3.1 Water Fluxes in Space and Time 43
3.2 Mechanisms of Human Interaction with Water Fluxes 45
3.3 Water Stress and Water Scarcity 47
3.4 Virtual Water and the Water Footprint 49
3.5 Live, Eat, Consume: The Conceptual Framework of Water Stress and Virtual
Water 58
References 61
4 Live 63
4.1 Introduction 63
4.2 Water and Energy 63
4.2.1 The Nexus of Water and Energy 63
4.2.2 Energy Use in Water Management 65
4.2.2.1 Energy Demands from Water Management 65
4.2.2.2 Energy Consumption by the Customer 70
4.2.2.3 Reducing Energy Demands in the Water Sector 70
4.2.3 Water Use in Energy Production 72
4.2.3.1 Water Use in Primary Energy Supply 73
4.2.3.2 Water Use in Final Energy Consumption 74
4.2.3.3 Power Station Vulnerabilities Related to Water 76
4.2.3.4 Hydropower 77
4.2.3.5 Emerging Primary Energy Sources 78
4.2.3.6 Future Energy Portfolios 82
4.3 Urbanisation 86
4.3.1 The Rise of the City 86
4.3.2 Peri ]Urban Communities 88
4.3.3 Traditional Approaches to the Management of Urban Water Supply and Demand 90
4.3.4 Alternative Approaches to Urban Water Supply 91
4.3.4.1 Cyclical Water Management Systems 91
4.3.4.2 Hybrid Systems and Localised Networks 93
4.3.4.3 Inter ]Basin Transfers 94
4.3.4.4 New Sources of Water Supply 95
4.3.5 Demand Management and the Role of Water Pricing 97
4.3.6 Using Water to Meet Urban Demands for Other Resources 100
4.3.7 Flooding in Urban Environments 102
4.3.7.1 Riverine and Coastal Flooding 103
4.3.7.2 Stormwater Flooding 104
4.3.7.3 Groundwater Flooding 105
4.3.8 Opportunities and Challenges of Urban Water Management 106
4.3.8.1 Improved Data Management 108
4.3.8.2 Learning from Nature 109
4.3.8.3 Integrating the Management of Urban Resources 110
4.3.8.4 Leadership and Social Action 110
References 110
5 Eat 117
5.1 The Hidden Water in Food 118
5.1.1 How Much Water is Hidden in Food? 118
5.1.2 The Impact of Water Use in the Global Food System 120
5.2 An Increasingly Important Problem 124
5.2.1 Population Growth 124
5.2.2 Changing Diet 126
5.2.3 Food Waste 129
5.2.4 Food as a Globalised Commodity 131
5.2.5 Climate Change 133
5.3 How to Respond to the Water/Food Conundrum 135
5.3.1 Improving the Efficiency of Water Use in the Global Food System 135
5.3.1.1 Rain ]Fed Agriculture 135
5.3.1.2 Irrigated Agriculture 138
5.3.1.3 Research and Development 142
5.3.2 The Importance of Consumer Education 145
5.3.3 Improve Governance of Water Use for Food Production 148
References 150
6 Consume 156
6.1 Impact of Consumerism on Water Management 156
6.1.1 Water as the Essential Economic Ingredient 156
6.1.2 Hidden Demand 157
6.2 Water Use in Industry: Which Sectors Use the Most? 158
6.3 Water Use in Industry: Which Activities Use the Most? 161
6.3.1 Agriculture: Water to Produce Non ]Food Goods 161
6.3.1.1 The Water Footprint of Clothing 161
6.3.1.2 The Cotton Problem 164
6.3.2 Mining for Minerals 166
6.3.2.1 The Role of Water in Mining 166
6.3.2.2 Regional Context and Water Management Challenges for Mining 168
6.3.3 Manufacturing 169
6.3.3.1 Water Use in Paper Production 169
6.3.3.2 Water Use in Fabricated Metal Production 170
6.4 Water Risk: Recognising the Magnitude of the Problem 170
6.5 Water Risk: Defining and Quantifying the Risk 173
6.5.1 Physical Risks 173
6.5.2 Geopolitical Risks 175
6.5.3 Reputational Risks 178
6.5.4 Social and Community Risks and Impacts 179
6.5.5 Regulatory Risks 179
6.5.6 Financial Implications of Water Risks 181
6.6 Managing Risks and Seizing Opportunities: The Path to Maturity 181
6.6.1 The Age of Taking Water for Granted 182
6.6.2 The Age of Water Reduction 184
6.6.3 The Age of Water Stewardship 186
References 190
Part III Existing Water Architecture 195
7 Existing Management of Water Resources 197
7.1 Governance 197
7.2 Structure of Water Management 198
7.3 The Role of Policy in Decision Making 201
7.4 Types of Policy and their Development 202
7.4.1 Water Policy for Domestic Supply 203
7.4.2 Water Policy for Agriculture 206
7.4.3 Water Policy for Industry 208
7.5 The Rise of Decentralisation and Consultation 209
7.6 Regulation of Water Management 210
7.6.1 Regulating Sources of Water 211
7.6.2 Regulating Drinking Water and Non ]Potable Quality 214
7.6.3 Managing Demands for Water and Enforcing Best Practice 215
7.6.4 Regulating Wastewater Treatment and Disposal 216
7.6.5 Regulating Environmental Conditions 217
7.7 Regulatory Models 218
7.8 Regulatory Phases: Unregulated versus Highly Regulated 219
7.8.1 The Unregulated or Lightly Regulated Phase 220
7.8.2 The Over ]Regulated Phase 221
7.8.3 The Mature Phase 222
7.9 Governance Silos 223
7.10 Breaking the Silos and Integrating Water Supply Policy 224
7.11 Evolution of Integrated Water Resource Management 227
7.12 Traditional Water Planning Responsibilities versus a Corporate-Driven
Water Risk Agenda 231
7.13 Summary 231
References 232
8 Ownership and Investment 237
8.1 Public versus Private Ownership Models 237
8.1.1 A New Era of Privatisation 238
8.1.2 A Backlash Against Privatisation 239
8.1.3 Reflections on the Public versus Private Debate 240
8.2 Investment Models and the Economics of Water Management 241
8.2.1 Current and Future Forecast Levels of Investment 241
8.2.2 Meeting Investment Needs 243
8.2.2.1 Investment to Achieve Basic Human Needs 245
8.2.2.2 Investment to Achieve Discretionary Domestic and Industrial Needs 245
8.3 Summary 246
References 246
Part IV Moving to a New Water Architecture 249
9 Challenges and Opportunities 251
9.1 A New Water Architecture: An Introduction 251
9.2 Challenges 252
9.2.1 Stresses and Strains 252
9.2.2 Current Architecture of Water Management 254
9.3 Opportunities 255
9.3.1 Emergence of Virtual Water Concepts in Water Policy 255
9.3.2 Emergence of Multi ]Stakeholder Approaches to Water Policy 257
9.3.3 Reform of Water Policy as Opportunity 258
9.4 A Systems Approach to Water Management 260
9.4.1 Principles of Systems Thinking 260
9.4.2 Integrated Management of Water at a Catchment Scale 261
9.4.3 Cyclical Management and Allocation of Water Resources 264
References 265
10 Conceptual Integration 266
10.1 Societal View of the Value of Water 267
10.1.1 The Free Resource 267
10.1.2 Price Signals in Drinking Water Supply 267
10.1.3 Price Signals Related to Water in Food and Other Goods 268
10.2 Water as an Under-Valued Resource: The Consequences 269
10.2.1 Profligacy 269
10.2.2 Poor Water Management and Decision Making 269
10.3 Moving to Conceptual Integration 270
10.3.1 A New Appreciation of the Role and Value of Water 270
10.3.2 The Role of Water Professionals 271
References 272
11 Institutional Integration 273
11.1 Requirements for Delivering Integrated Solutions 273
11.1.1 Vertical Integration 274
11.1.2 Horizontal Integration 275
11.2 The Challenges of Delivering Integrated Solutions 276
11.2.1 The State of Play 276
11.2.2 Causes and Barriers 276
11.3 The Role of Governments 277
11.4 The Importance of Education 281
11.5 The Role of Private Organisations 283
11.6 The Importance of Knowledge Transfer and the Benefits of the Digital Revolution 285
11.7 The Role of Non-Governmental Organisations 287
11.8 How to Finance Change 287
11.9 Conclusions: Institutional Enablers 289
References 290
12 Physical Integration 293
12.1 The Need for Change 294
12.1.1 Existing Limitations 294
12.1.2 Barriers to Change 297
12.1.2.1 Path Dependency 297
12.1.2.2 Siloed Decision Making 297
12.1.2.3 Perceptions of Ecosystem Services 298
12.1.2.4 Business Models 298
12.1.3 Overcoming the Barriers 298
12.2 Integrating Green and Grey Infrastructure to Slow Down Water 299
12.3 The Storage Continuum 301
12.4 Creating Hybrid Water Management Systems 305
12.4.1 The Challenge of Maintenance and Long ]Term Responsibility 307
12.5 Circular Systems that Transform Wastes to Resources 308
12.6 Conclusions 312
References 313
13 A Way Forward 316
13.1 Conceptual Integration 316
13.2 Institutional Integration 318
13.3 Physical Integration 319
13.4 Summary 320
Index 321