Handbook of Measurement in Science and Engineering, Volume 3

VOLUME 3 List of Contributors xxi PREFACE xxv Part VII Physics and Electrical Engineering 1943 54 Laser Measurement Techniques 1945 Cecil S. Joseph, Gargi Sharma, Thomas M. Goyette, and Robert H. Giles 54.1 Introduction, 1945 54.2 Laser Measurements: Laser-Based Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar Systems, 1965 54.3 Laser Imaging Techniques, 1974 References, 1997 55 Magnetic Force Images Using Capacitive Coupling Effect 2001 Byung I. Kim 55.1 Introduction, 2001 55.2 Experiment 2004 55.3 Results and Discussion 2006 55.4 Conclusion 2020 References 2021 56 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 2025 Kwok-Wai Ng 56.1 Introduction 2025 56.2 Theory of Operation 2026 56.3 Measurement of the Tunnel Current 2030 56.4 The Scanner 2032 56.5 Operating Mode 2035 56.6 Coarse Approach Mechanism 2036 56.7 Summary 2041 References 2042 57 Measurement of Light and Color 2043 John D. Bullough 57.1 Introduction 2043 57.2 Lighting Terminology 2043 57.3 Basic Principles of Photometry and Colorimetry 2056 57.4 Instrumentation 2072 References 2074 58 The Detection and Measurement of Ionizing Radiation 2075 Clair J. Sullivan 58.1 Introduction 2075 58.2 Common Interactions of Ionizing Radiation 2076 58.3 The Measurement of Charge 2077 58.4 Major Types of Detectors 2081 58.5 Neutron Detection 2100 58.6 Concluding Remarks 2106 References 2106 59 Measuring Time and Comparing Clocks 2109 Judah Levine 59.1 Introduction 2109 59.2 A Generic Clock 2109 59.3 Characterizing the Stability of Clocks and Oscillators 2110 59.4 Characteristics of Different Types of Oscillators 2117 59.5 Comparing Clocks and Oscillators 2119 59.6 Noise Models 2121 59.7 Measuring Tools and Methods 2126 59.8 Measurement Strategies 2129 59.9 The Kalman Estimator 2133 59.10 Transmitting Time and Frequency Information 2135 59.11 Examples of the Measurement Strategies 2141 59.11.1 The Navigation Satellites of the GPS 2141 59.12 The Polling Interval: How Often Should I Calibrate a Clock? 2152 59.13 Error Detection 2155 59.14 Cost-Benefit Analysis 2156 59.15 The National Time Scale 2157 59.16 Traceability 2158 59.17 Summary 2159 59.18 Bibliography 2160 References 2160 60 Laboratory-Based Gravity Measurement 2163 Charles D. Hoyle Jr. 60.1 Introduction 2163 60.2 Motivation for Laboratory-Scale Tests of Gravitational Physics 2164 60.3 Parameterization 2165 60.4 Current Status of Laboratory-Scale Gravitational Measurements 2166 60.5 Torsion Pendulum Experiments 2167 60.6 Microoscillators and Submicron Tests of Gravity 2177 60.7 Atomic and Nuclear Physics Techniques 2178 Acknowledgements 2178 References 2178 61 Cryogenic Measurements 2181 Ray Radebaugh 61.1 Introduction 2181 61.2 Temperature 2182 61.3 Strain 2201 61.4 Pressure 2205 61.5 Flow 2211 61.6 Liquid Level 2218 61.7 Magnetic Field 2219 61.8 Conclusions 2220 References 2220 62 Temperature-Dependent Fluorescence Measurements 2225 James E. Parks, Michael R. Cates, Stephen W. Allison, David L. Beshears, M. Al Akerman, and Matthew B. Scudiere 62.1 Introduction 2225 62.2 Advantages of Phosphor Thermometry 2227 62.3 Theory and Background 2227 62.4 Laboratory Calibration of Tp Systems 2235 62.5 History of Phosphor Thermometry 2238 62.6 Representative Measurement Applications 2239 62.7 Two-Dimensional and Time-Dependent Temperature Measurement 2241 62.8 Conclusion 2243 References 2243 63 Voltage and Current Transducers for Power Systems 2245 Carlo Muscas and Nicola Locci 63.1 Introduction 2245 63.2 Characterization of Voltage and Current Transducers 2247 63.3 Instrument Transformers 2248 63.4 Transducers Based on Passive Components 2255 63.5 Hall-Effect and Zero-Flux Transducers 2258 63.6 Air-Core Current Transducers: Rogowski Coils 2262 63.7 Optical Current and Voltage Transducers 2267 References and Further Reading 2273 64 Electric Power and Energy Measurement 2275 Alessandro Ferrero and Marco Faifer 64.1 Introduction 2275 64.2 Power and Energy in Electric Circuits 2276 64.3 Measurement Methods 2282 64.4 Wattmeters 2288 64.5 Transducers 2290 64.6 Power Quality Measurements 2303 References 2305 Part VIII CHEMISTRY 2307 65 An Overview of Chemometrics for the Engineering and Measurement Sciences 2309 Brad Swarbrick and Frank Westad 65.1 Introduction: The Past and Present of Chemometrics 2309 65.2 Representative Data 2311 65.3 Exploratory Data Analysis 2317 65.4 Multivariate Regression 2352 65.5 Multivariate Classification 2369 65.6 Techniques for Validating Chemometric Models 2385 65.7 An Introduction to Mspc 2389 65.8 Terminology 2397 65.9 Chapter Summary 2401 References 2404 66 Liquid Chromatography 2409 Zhao Li, Sandya Beeram, Cong Bi, Ellis Kaufmann, Ryan Matsuda, Maria Podariu, Elliott Rodriguez, Xiwei Zheng, and David S. Hage 66.1 Introduction 2409 66.2 Support Materials in Lc 2412 66.3 Role of the Mobile Phase in Lc 2413 66.4 Adsorption Chromatography 2414 66.5 Partition Chromatography 2415 66.6 Ion-Exchange Chromatography 2417 66.7 Size-Exclusion Chromatography 2419 66.8 Affinity Chromatography 2421 66.9 Detectors for Liquid Chromatography 2423 66.10 Other Components of Lc Systems 2426 Acknowledgements 2427 References 2427 67 Mass Spectroscopy Measurements of Nitrotyrosine-Containing Proteins 2431 Xianquan Zhan and Dominic M. Desiderio 67.1 Introduction 2431 67.2 Mass Spectrometric Characteristics of Nitropeptides 2434 67.3 Ms Measurement of in vitro Synthetic Nitroproteins 2443 67.4 Ms Measurement of In Vivo Nitroproteins 2446 67.5 Ms Measurement of In Vivo Nitroproteins in Different Pathological Conditions 2449 67.6 Biological Function Measurement of Nitroproteins 2456 67.7 Pitfalls of Nitroprotein Measurement 2462 67.8 Conclusions 2463 Nomenclature 2464 Acknowledgments 2465 References 2465 68 Fluorescence Spectroscopy 2475 Yevgen Povrozin and Beniamino Barbieri 68.1 Observables Measured in Fluorescence 2476 68.2 The Perrin-JabBonski Diagram 2476 68.3 Instrumentation 2479 68.4 Fluorophores 2486 68.5 Measurements 2487 68.6 Conclusions 2498 References 2498 Further Reading 2498 69 X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy 2499 Grant Bunker 69.1 Introduction 2499 69.2 Basic Physics of X-Rays 2499 69.3 Experimental Requirements 2505 69.4 Measurement Modes 2507 69.5 Sources 2507 69.6 Beamlines 2512 69.7 Detectors 2518 69.8 Sample Preparation and Detection Modes 2521 69.9 Absolute Measurements 2526 References 2526 70 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (Nmr) Spectroscopy 2529 Kenneth R. Metz 70.1 Introduction 2529 70.2 Historical Review 2530 70.3 Basic Principles of Spin Magnetization 2531 70.4 Exciting the Nmr Signal 2534 70.5 Detecting the Nmr Signal 2538 70.6 Computing the Nmr Spectrum 2540 70.7 Nmr Instrumentation 2542 70.8 The Basic Pulsed Ftnmr Experiment 2550 70.9 Characteristics of Nmr Spectra 2551 70.10 Nmr Relaxation Effects 2563 70.11 Dynamic Phenomena in Nmr 2568 70.12 Multidimensional Nmr 2573 70.13 Conclusion 2580 References 2580 71 Near-Infrared Spectroscopy and Its Role in Scientific and Engineering Applications 2583 Brad Swarbrick 71.1 Introduction to Near-Infrared Spectroscopy and Historical Perspectives 2583 71.2 The Theory Behind Nir Spectroscopy 2588 71.3 Instrumentation for Nir Spectroscopy 2595 71.4 Modes of Spectral Collection and Sample Preparation in Nir Spectroscopy 2609 71.5 Preprocessing of Nir Spectra for Chemometric Analysis 2620 71.6 A Brief Overview of Applications of Nir Spectroscopy 2633 71.7 Summary and Future Perspectives 2647 71.8 Terminology 2648 References 2652 72 Nanomaterials Properties 2657 Paul J. Simmonds 72.1 Introduction 2657 72.2 The Rise of Nanomaterials 2660 72.3 Nanomaterial Properties Resulting from High Surface-Area-to-Volume Ratio 2661 72.4 Nanomaterial Properties Resulting from Quantum Confinement 2674 72.5 Conclusions 2695 References 2695 73 Chemical Sensing 2707 W. Rudolf Seitz 73.1 Introduction 2707 73.2 Electrical Methods 2709 73.3 Optical Methods 2717 73.4 Mass Sensors 2722 73.5 Sensor Arrays (Electronic Nose) 2724 References 2724 Index 2727