Essential Graphical Techniques in Geography

Chapter-1: Concept, types, collection, classification and representation of geographical data

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Concept of Data

1.3 Concept of Geographical Data

1.4 Types of Data (Geographical Data)

1.4.1 Qualitative data (Attribute)

1.4.2 Quantitative data (Variable)

1.4.2.1 Continuous variable and discontinuous or discrete variable

1.4.2.2 Difference between Continuous variable and discontinuous or discrete variable

1.4.3 Uni-variate data and Bi-variate data

1.4.4 Difference between Uni-variate data and Bi-variate data

1.4.5 Independent variable and Dependent variable

1.4.6 Difference between Qualitative data (Attribute) and Quantitative data (Variable)

1.4.7 Primary data

1.4.8 Secondary data

1.4.9 Advantages of use of primary data over the secondary data

1.4.10 Difference between primary and secondary data

1.5 Methods of data collection

1.5.1 Methods of primary data collection

1.5.1.1 Observation method

1.5.1.1.1 Direct observation method

1.5.1.1.1a Advantages and disadvantages of direct observation method

1.5.1.1.2 Indirect observation method

1.5.1.1.2a Advantages and disadvantages of indirect observation method

1.5.1.1.3 Participation observation

1.5.1.1.3a Advantages and disadvantages of participation method

1.5.1.2 Interview method

1.5.1.2.1 Interviewing by Questionnaire method

1.5.1.2.2 Characteristics of standard questionnaire

1.5.1.2.3 Direct Questionnaire method

1.5.1.2.3a Advantages and disadvantages of Direct Questionnaire method

1.5.1.2.4 Postal method of Questionnaire survey

1.5.1.2.4a Advantages and disadvantages of Postal Questionnaire method

1.5.1.2.5 Interviewing by Informal method

1.5.1.2.5a Advantages and disadvantages of Informal interview method

1.5.1.2.6a Advantages and disadvantages of Telephone interview method

1.5.1.3 Sampling method

1.5.1.3.1 Advantages and disadvantages of sampling method

1.5.1.4 Experimentation method

1.5.1.4.1 Advantages and disadvantages of experimental method

1.5.1.5 Local sources method

1.5.1.5.1 Advantages and disadvantages of local sources method

1.5.2 Methods of secondary data collection

1.5.2.2 Unpublished sources

1.5.2.3 Advantages and disadvantages of secondary data collection

1.6 Measurement scales in geographical system

1.6.1 Nominal scale

1.6.1.1 Characteristics of nominal data

1.6.1.2 Application in geographical study

1.6.2 Ordinal scale

1.6.2.1 Characteristics of ordinal data

1.6.2.2 Application in geographical study

1.6.3 Interval scale

1.6.3.1 Characteristics of interval data

1.6.3.2 Application in geographical study

1.6.4 Ratio scale

1.6.4.1 Characteristics of ratio data

1.6.4.2 Application in geographical study

1.7 Processing of data

1.7.1 Classification of data

1.7.1.1 Objectives of data classification

1.7.1.2 Characteristics of ideal data classification

1.7.1.3 Types of classification

1.7.1.3.1 Geographical classification (based on location or space)

1.7.1.3.2 Chronological classification (based on time or period)

1.7.1.3.3 Qualitative classification (attribute)

1.7.1.3.4 Quantitative classification (numerical)

1.7.2 Tabulation of data

1.7.2.1 Essentials of an ideal table

1.7.2.2 Types of table

1.7.2.2.1 General purpose table

1.7.2.2.2 Special purpose table

1.7.2.2.3 Simple table

1.7.2.2.4 Complex table

1.7.3 Frequency distribution

1.7.3.1 Important terminologies associated with grouped frequency distribution

1.7.3.2 Construction of Frequency Distribution Table

1.7.3.3 Cumulative Frequency Distribution

1.7.3.4 Uses of cumulative frequency distribution

1.8 Methods of presentation of geographical data

1.8.1 Textual form

1.8.1.1 Advantages and disadvantages of textual form

1.8.2 Tabular form

1.8.2.1 Advantages and disadvantages of data representation in table

1.8.3 Semi-tabular form

1.8.4 Graphical and diagrammatic form (Graphs, diagrams and maps)

References

Chapter-2: Representation of geographical data using graphs

2.2 Types of Co-ordinate system

2.2.1 Cartesian or Rectangular Co-ordinate System

2.2.2 Polar Co-ordinate System

2.2.3 Cylindrical Co-ordinate System

2.2.4 Spherical Co-ordinate System

2.3 Selection of scale in constructing graph

2.4 Advantages and disadvantages of use of graphs

2.5 Types of graphical representation of data

2.5.1 Bi-axial graph or Line graph or Historigram

2.5.1.1 Open line graph

2.5.1.1.1 Simple line graph

2.5.1.1.1a Arithmetic graph

2.5.1.1.1b Logarithmic graph

2.5.1.1.1c Semi-logarithmic graph

2.5.1.1.1d Log-log graph

2.5.1.1.1e Advantages and disadvantages of using logarithmic graph

2.5.1.1.1f Difference between Arithmetic (linear) and logarithmic line graphs

2.5.1.1.2 Composite or compound line graph

2.5.1.1.2a Poly graph

2.5.1.1.2b Band graph

2.5.1.2 Closed line graph

2.5.1.2.1 Climograph

2.5.1.2.1a Climograph of USDA type (1941)

2.5.1.2.1b Climograph of Foster type (1944)

2.5.1.2.1c Climograph of G. Taylor (1949)

2.5.1.2.2 Hythergraph

2.5.1.2.2a Significance of Hythergraph

2.5.2 Tri-axial graph

2.5.2.1 Ternary graph

2.5.3 Multi-axial graph

2.5.3.1 Radar or Spider or Star Graph

2.5.3.1.1 Methods of construction

2.5.3.1.2 Steps of drawing radar graph in Microsoft Excel

2.5.3.1.3 How to understand the Radar graph

2.5.3.1.4 Interpretation of the graph

2.5.3.1.5 Advantages of using radar graph

2.5.3.1.6 Limitations

2.5.3.2.1 Principles and methods of construction

2.5.3.2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of use of polar or rose graph

2.5.4 Special graph

2.5.4.1 Scatter graph

2.5.4.1.1 Positive, Negative and Zero co-relation

2.5.4.1.2 Linear and Non-linear or curvi-linear co-relation

2.5.4.2 Ergo-graph

2.5.4.2.1 Polar co-ordinate or circular ergograph of A. Geddes and G.G. Ogilvie (1938)

2.5.4.3 Ombrothermic graph

2.5.4.3.1 Principles and methods of construction

2.5.4.4 Water balance or water budget curve

2.5.4.4.1 Formulation of water balance techniques

2.5.4.4.2 Procedures for determining the status of water availability

2.5.4.4.3 Applicability of Water Balance Estimation

2.5.4.5 Hydrograph

2.5.4.5.1 Elements of the Hydrograph

2.5.4.5.2 Factors affecting Hydrograph characteristics

2.5.4.5.3 Delineation of run-off components in storm hydrograph

2.5.4.5.3a Surface run-off

2.5.4.5.3b Interflow or sub-surface flow

2.5.4.5.3c Direct run-off

2.5.4.5.3d Base flow

2.5.4.6 Rating curve

2.5.4.6.1 Controls of Rating Curve

2.5.4.6.2 Steps of development of Rating Curve

2.5.4.6.3 Simple Rating Curve

2.5.4.6.4 Use of Rating Curve

2.5.4.7 Lorenz Curve and Gini Co-efficient

2.5.4.7.1 Techniques of drawing of Lorenz Curve

2.5.4.7.2 How to read the Lorenz Curve

2.5.4.7.3 Gini Co-efficient (G)

2.5.4.7.4 Uses of the Lorenz Curve and Gini Co-efficient

2.5.4.7.5 Problems of using Lorenz Curve and Gini Co-efficient

2.5.4.8 Dispersion graph

2.5.4.8.1 Methods of construction of rainfall dispersion graph

2.5.4.9 Rank-size graph

2.5.4.9.1 Rank-size graph according to G.K. Zipf

2.5.4.9.2 Rank-size graph according to Pareto

2.5.4.9.3 Types of deviations in Rank-size rule

2.5.4.9.3a Primary deviation

2.5.4.9.3b Binary deviation

2.5.4.9.3c Stepped pattern deviation

2.5.4.10 Box plot ("Box-and-Whiskers") Graphs

2.5.4.10.1 Elements of a Box- and-whisker plot

2.5.4.10.2 Methods of construction

2.5.4.10.3 Example without outliers

2.5.4.10.4 Example with outliers

2.5.4.11 Hypsometric curve or Graph

2.5.4.11.1 Hypsometric Integral

2.5.4.11.2 Importance of Hypsometric Integral

2.5.5 Frequency distribution graphs

2.5.5.1 Histogram

2.5.5.1.1 Grouped frequency distribution with equal class size

2.5.5.1.2 Grouped frequency distribution with unequal class size

2.5.5.1.3 Uses of Histogram

2.5.5.2 Difference between Historigram and Histogram

2.5.5.3.1 Uses of frequency polygon

2.5.5.4 Frequency curve

2.5.5.4.1 Shape of frequency curve

2.5.5.4.1a Skewness (S_k)

2.5.5.4.1b Normal distribution (Normal Curve)

2.5.5.4.1c Properties of Normal Curve

2.5.5.4.1d Kurtosis

2.5.5.4.2 Uses of frequency curve

2.5.5.5 Cumulative frequency polygon and curve (Ogive)

2.5.5.5.1 Uses of Cumulative frequency polygon and curve (Ogive)

References

Chapter-3: Diagramatic representation of geographical data

3.1 Concept of Diagram

3.2 Advantages and disadvantages of data representation in Diagrams

3.3 Difference between graph and diagram

3.4 Types of Diagrams in data representation

3.4.1 One dimensional diagrams

3.4.1.1 Bar diagrams

3.4.1.1.1 Principles of construction of bar diagrams

3.4.1.1.2 Advantages and disadvantages of use of bar diagrams

3.4.1.1.3 Types of bar diagrams

3.4.1.1.3a Simple bar diagram

3.4.1.1.3b Multiple bar diagram

3.4.1.1.3c Sub-divided or compound bar diagram

3.4.1.1.3d Percentage bar diagram

3.4.1.2 Pyramids

3.4.1.2.1 Pyramids in Population Studies (Age-sex pyramid)

3.4.1.2.2 Pyramids in Ecological Studies

3.4.1.2.3 Pyramids in Urban Studies

3.4.1.3 Difference between Histogram and Bar diagram

3.4.2 Two dimensional diagrams

3.4.2.1 Rectangular diagram

3.4.2.2 Triangular diagram

3.4.2.3 Square diagram

3.4.2.4 Circular diagram

3.4.2.4.1 Simple Circular Diagram

3.4.2.4.2 Angular diagram or compound circular diagram or pie-diagram or wheel diagram

3.4.2.4.3 Pie-diagram in percentage

3.4.2.4.4 Disadvantages of Pie diagrams

3.4.2.5 Doughnut diagram

3.4.2.5.1 When the doughnut diagram should be used

3.4.2.5.2 Advantages and disadvantages of doughnut diagram

3.4.2.6 Difference between pie diagram and doughnut diagram

3.4.3 Three dimensional diagrams

3.4.3.1 Cube diagram

3.4.3.1.1 Steps to construct cube diagram

3.4.3.2 Sphere diagram

3.4.4.1 Pictograms

3.4.4.1.1 Principles of drawing of pictograms

3.4.4.1.2 Advantages and disadvantages of use of pictograms

3.4.4.2 Kite Diagrams

3.4.4.2.1 Procedures to draw kite diagrams

3.4.4.2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of using kite diagrams

References

Chapter-4: Mapping techniques of geographical data

4.1 Concept and Definition of Map

4.2 Concept of Plan

4.3 Difference between plan and map

4.4 Elements of a Map

4.5 History of Map making

4.5.1 Ancient Age

4.5.2 Mediaeval Age

4.5.3 Modern Age

4.5.4 Contributions of Indian scholars

4.6 Methods of mapping the Earth

4.7 Cartography

4.8 Key concepts of Cartography

4.8.1 Geodesy

4.8.1.1 Geometric geodesy

4.8.1.2 Physical geodesy

4.8.1.3 Satellite Geodesy

4.8.2 Geoid

4.8.3 Ellipsoid or Spheroid

4.8.4 Surveying and levelling

4.8.5 Geodetic surveying and Plane surveying

4.8.5.1 Geodetic Surveying

4.8.5.2 Plane surveying

4.8.6 Datum

4.8.6.1 Vertical (Geodetic) datum

4.8.6.2 Horizontal datum

4.8.7 Reduced level

4.8.8 Geographic Co-ordinate Systems

4.8.9 Cardinal points

4.8.10 Map Projection

4.8.10.1 Suitable projections based on location, shape and purpose of the map

4.8.11 Bearing

4.8.11.1 True (Geographical) meridian and True (Geographical) Bearing

4.8.11.2 Magnetic meridian and Magnetic Bearing

4.8.11.3 Arbitrary meridian and Arbitrary Bearing

4.8.11.4 Whole circle bearing system or Azimuthal bearing system (W.C.B)

4.8.11.5 Quadrantal bearing system or Reduced bearing system (Q.B.)

4.8.11.5.1 Difference between W. C. B. (Azimuth) and Q. B. (R. B.)

4.8.11.6 Forward bearing and Backward bearing

4.8.12 Magnetic Declination

4.8.13 Magnetic Inclination or magnetic dip

4.8.14 Traversing or traverse survey

4.8.15 Triangulation Survey

4.8.16 Trilateration Survey

4.8.17 Difference between triangulation and trilateration survey

4.9 Types of Map

4.9.1 General reference maps (General purpose maps)

4.9.2 Thematic maps (Special purpose maps)

4.9.3 Types of Thematic Maps

4.9.3.1 Qualitative thematic map

4.9.3.2 Quantitative thematic map

4.10 Types of maps based on scale

4.10.1 Large scale maps

4.10.1.1 Cadastral map

4.10.1.2 Topographical map

4.10.1.2.1 Indian Old Series Topographical Maps

4.10.1.2.2 Indian Open Series Topographical Maps

4.10.2 Small scale maps

4.10.2.1 Wall map

4.10.2.2 Chorographical or Atlas map

4.10.3 Medium scale maps

4.11 Based on purpose or content or function of the map

4.11.1 Physical or natural maps

4.11.1.1 Astronomical map

4.11.1.2 Relief or orographic map

4.11.1.3 Techniques of Representation of Relief

4.11.1.3.1 Pictorial methods

4.11.1.3.1a Hachures

4.11.1.3.1b Hill shading

4.11.1.3.2 Mathematical methods

4.11.1.3.2a Contours

4.11.1.3.2b Spot height

4.11.1.3.2c Bench mark and its types

4.11.1.3.2d Trigonometrical station

4.11.1.3.2e Form lines

4.11.1.3.3 Combination of both

4.11.1.4 Geological map

4.11.1.5 Weather and Climatic map

4.11.1.6 Soil map

4.11.1.7 Vegetation map

4.11.2 Cultural maps

4.11.2.1 Population map

4.11.2.2 Economic map

4.11.2.3 Political map

4.11.2.4 Military map

4.11.2.5 Historical map

4.11.2.6 Social map

4.11.2.7 Transportation map

4.12 Techniques for the study of spatial patterns of distribution of elements (Distribution Map)

4.12.1 Chorochromatic map (Colour or Tint method)

4.12.1.1 Methods and Principles of construction

4.12.1.2 Types of Chorochromatic maps

4.12.1.2.1 Simple Chorochromatic maps

4.12.1.2.2 Compound chorochromatic maps

4.12.1.3 Uses of Chorochromatic maps

4.12.1.4 Disadvantages of use of Chorochromatic maps

4.12.2 Choroschematic or Symbol map

4.12.2.1 Methods and Principles of construction

4.12.2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of Choroschematic map

4.12.2.3 Difference between Chorochromatic map and Choroschematic map

4.12.3 Choropleth map

4.12.3.1 Principles of construction

4.12.3.2 Methods of construction

4.12.3.3 Advantages and disadvantages of Choropleth map

4.12.3.4 Representation of population density in Choropleth map

4.12.3.5 Representation of cropping intensity in Choropleth map

4.12.4 Dasymetric map

4.12.4.1 Methods and Principles of construction

4.12.4.2 Uses of Dasymetric map

4.12.4.3 Difference between Choropleth map and Dasymetric map

4.12.5 Isarithmic map (Isometric map and Isopleth map)

4.12.5.1 Types of Isarithmic map

4.12.5.2 Commonly used isolines or isopleths

4.12.5.3 Methods and principles of construction

4.12.5.4 Advantages and disadvantages of use of Isarithmic map

4.12.5.5 Difference between Choropleth map and Isopleth map

4.12.6 Dot map

4.12.6.1 Methods and principles of construction

4.12.6.1.1 Selection of the suitable dot scale

4.12.6.1.2 Selection of size of dots

4.12.6.1.3 Spacing or placing the dots

4.12.6.1.4 Multiple dot method

4.12.6.1.5 Advantages and disadvantages of dot maps

4.12.7 Flow map

4.12.7.1 Methods of construction

4.12.7.2 Advantages and disadvantages of flow map

4.12.8 Diagrammatic map

4.13 Importance and Uses of Maps

4.13.1 Measurement of direction

4.13.1.1 Steps of measurement of direction

4.13.2 Measurement of distance

4.13.2.1 Measurement of distance of straight features

4.13.2.2 Measurement of distance of curved features

4.13.2.2.1 Use of Ruler or Divider

4.13.2.2.2 Use of toned Thread

4.13.2.2.3 Use of Opisometer

4.13.3 Measurement of area

4.13.3.1 Graphical Methods

4.13.3.1.1 Measurement of Entire area

4.13.3.1.1a Strips method

4.13.3.1.1b Square grid method

4.13.3.1.1c Geometric method

4.13.3.1.2 Measurement of Boundary area

4.13.3.1.2a Mean or Average-ordinate method

4.13.3.1.2b Mid-ordinate method

4.13.3.1.2c Trapezoidal method

4.13.3.1.2d Simpson method

4.13.3.2 Instrumental Method (Using Planimeter)

References

Subject Index