Educational Testing and Measurement
11th Edition
Published on 21. March 2016
Book
Paperback/Softback
432 pages
978-1-118-97630-2 (ISBN)
Description
Educational Testing and Measurement: Classroom Application and Practice, 11th Edition by Tom Kubiszyn and Gary D. Borich, serves as an up-to-date, practical, reader-friendly resource that will help readers navigate today's seemingly ever-changing and complex world of educational testing, assessment, and measurement. The 11th edition presents a balanced perspective of educational testing and assessment, informed by developments and the ever increasing research base.
More details
Edition
11th Binder Ready Version ed.
Language
English
Place of publication
United States
Product notice
Paperback (trade)
Unsewn / adhesive bound
ISBN-13
978-1-118-97630-2 (9781118976302)
Copyright in bibliographic data and cover images is held by Nielsen Book Services Limited or by the publishers or by their respective licensors: all rights reserved.
Schweitzer Classification
Other editions
Previous edition
Book
08/2013
10th Edition
Wiley
€272.00
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Content
CHAPTER 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL TESTING AND MEASUREMENT 1
Tests Are Only Tools; Their Usefulness Can Vary 1
Why We Developed This Text: Enhancing Test Usefulness 2
Technical Adequacy 2
Test User Competency 3
Matching the Test's Intended Purpose 3
Matching Diverse Test-Takers to the Test 5
Test Results and Diversity Considerations 6
Tests Are Only Tools: A Video Beats a Photo 6
Defining Some Test-Related Terms 8
Tests, Assessments, and the Assessment Process 8
Types of Tests/Assessments 10
Recent Developments: Impact on Classroom Testing and
Measurement 13
Education Reform Meets Special Education Reform: NCLB and IDEIA 14
The Impact of the IDEIA and NCLB on Regular Education Teachers 15
Other Trends: Technology, Globalization, and International Competitiveness 16
Competency Testing for Teachers 17
Increased Interest from Professional Groups 18
A Professional Association-Book Publisher Information Initiative 18
Effects on the Classroom Teacher 19
About the Text 22
What If You're "No Good in Math"? 22
Summary 22
For Discussion 24
CHAPTER 2 HIGH-STAKES TESTING 25
Comparing NCLB and State High-Stakes Testing Programs 25
Recent NCLB Developments 27
High-Stakes Testing: A Nationwide Phenomenon 28
High-Stakes Tests Are Only Tools 29
Why Does High-Stakes Testing Matter? 30
Promotion and Graduation Decisions Affect Students 31
Principal and Teacher Incentives Are Linked to HST Performance 32
Property Values, Business Decisions, and Politics and HST 33
The Lake Wobegon Effect and HST 33
The Evolution of High-Stakes Testing, Academic Standards, and Common Core State Standards 34
Education Reform 34
Standards-Based Reform 34
Types of High-Stakes Tests 37
Criterion-Referenced High-Stakes Tests 37
Norm-Referenced High-Stakes Tests 38
Benchmark Tests and High-Stakes Tests 43
The High-Stakes Testing Backlash 43
Is There Really a High-Stakes Testing Backlash? 45
What Do National Organizations Say about High-Stakes Tests? 46
AERA's 12 Conditions for HST Programs 47
How Can a Teacher Use the 12 Conditions? 49
Helping Students (and Yourself) Prepare for High-Stakes Tests 50
Focus on the Task, Not Your Feelings about It 50
Inform Students and Parents about the Importance of the Test 51
Teach Test-Taking Skills as Part of Regular Instruction 52
As the Test Day Approaches, Respond to Student Questions Openly and Directly 53
Take Advantage of Whatever Preparation Materials Are Available 54
Summary 54
For Discussion 55
CHAPTER 3 RESPONSE TO INTERVENTION (RTI) AND THE REGULAR CLASSROOM TEACHER 57
What Is RTI? 57
What If You Have Not Heard of RTI Before? 58
How New Is RTI? 58
Do Regular Education Teachers Need to Know about RTI? 58
An RTI Scenario 59
How Important Is RTI to Regular Education Teachers? 61
Can a Special Education Law Reform Regular Education? 62
How Is RTI Supposed to Help Students and Schools? 62
RTI Definitions, Components, and Implementation Approaches 63
RTI Definitions 63
RTI Components 64
RTI Implementation Approaches 70
How Widely Is RTI Being Implemented? 72
Some Benefits of RTI 73
RTI: The Promise and Some Controversies 73
Technical Issues: Reliability, Validity, and Fairness 73
Implementation Issues 74
Summary 74
For Discussion 76
CHAPTER 4 THE PURPOSE OF TESTING 77
Testing, Accountability, and the Classroom Teacher 78
Types of Educational Decisions 80
A Pinch of Salt 83
"Pinching" in the Classroom 84
What to Measure 85
How to Measure 86
Written Tests 86
Summary 88
For Discussion 88
CHAPTER 5 NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTS AND CONTENT VALIDITY EVIDENCE 89
Defining Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Tests 89
Comparing Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Tests 93
Differences in the Construction of Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Tests 94
Norm- and Criterion-Referenced Tests and Linguistic and Cultural Diversity 95
Norm- and Criterion-Referenced Tests and Validity Evidence 96
A Three-Stage Model of Classroom Measurement 97
Why Objectives? Why Not Just Write Test Items? 99
Where Do Goals Come From? 101
Are There Different Kinds of Goals and Objectives? 102
How Can Instructional Objectives Make a Teacher's Job Easier? 105
Summary 106
For Discussion 107
CHAPTER 6 MEASURING LEARNING OUTCOMES 109
Writing Instructional Objectives 109
Identifying Learning Outcomes 109
Identifying Observable and Directly Measurable Learning Outcomes 110
Stating Conditions 111
Stating Criterion Levels 112
Keeping It Simple and Straightforward 113
Matching Test Items to Instructional Objectives 114
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives 116
Cognitive Domain 116
Affective Domain 120
The Psychomotor Domain 122
The Test Blueprint 123
Content Outline 125
Categories 125
Number of Items 125
Functions 125
Summary 127
For Practice 127
CHAPTER 7 WRITING OBJECTIVE TEST ITEMS 129
Which Format? 129
True-False Items 131
Suggestions for Writing True-False Items 133
Matching Items 134
Faults Inherent in Matching Items 134
Suggestions for Writing Matching Items 137
Multiple-Choice Items 138
Higher-Level Multiple-Choice Questions 143
Suggestions for Writing Multiple-Choice Items 146
Completion Items 147
Suggestions for Writing Completion Items 150
Gender and Racial Bias in Test Items 150
Guidelines for Writing Test Items 151
Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Objective Item Formats 152
True-False Tests 152
Matching Tests 153
Multiple-Choice Tests 153
Completion Tests 154
Summary 154
For Practice 155
CHAPTER 8 WRITING ESSAY TEST ITEMS 156
What Is an Essay Item? 157
Essay Items Should Measure Complex Cognitive Skills or Processes 157
Essay Items: Extended or Restricted Response 158
Examples of Restricted Response Essays 160
Pros and Cons of Essay Items 161
Advantages of the Essay Item 161
Disadvantages of the Essay Item 162
Suggestions for Writing Essay Items 162
Scoring Essay Questions 164
Scoring Extended Response and Higher Level Questions 166
General Essay Scoring Suggestions 170
Assessing Knowledge Organization 171
Open-Book Questions and Exams 174
Some Open-Book Techniques 176
Guidelines for Planning Essays, Knowledge Organization, and Open-Book Questions and Exams 180
Summary 181
For Practice 182
CHAPTER 9 PERFORMANCE-BASED ASSESSMENT 183
Performance Tests: Direct Measures of Competence 183
Performance Tests Can Assess Processes and Products 185
Performance Tests Can Be Embedded in Lessons 185
Performance Tests Can Assess Affective and Social Skills 186
Developing Performance Tests for Your Learners 187
Step 1: Deciding What to Test 188
Step 2: Designing the Assessment Context 190
Step 3: Specifying the Scoring Rubrics 193
Step 4: Specifying Testing Constraints 199
A Final Word 200
Summary 200
For Discussion and Practice 201
CHAPTER 10 PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT 203
Rationale for the Portfolio 204
Ensuring Validity of the Portfolio 204
Developing Portfolio Assessments 205
Step 1: Deciding on the Purposes for a Portfolio 205
Step 2: Identifying Cognitive Skills and Dispositions 206
Step 3: Deciding Who Will Plan the Portfolio 206
Step 4: Deciding Which Products to Put in the Portfolio and How Many Samples of Each Product 206
Step 5: Building the Portfolio Rubrics 207
Step 6: Developing a Procedure to Aggregate All Portfolio Ratings 212
Step 7: Determining the Logistics 215
Summary 218
For Practice 219
CHAPTER 11 ADMINISTERING, ANALYZING, AND IMPROVING THE TEST OR ASSESSMENT 220
Assembling the Test 220
Packaging the Test 221
Reproducing the Test 223
Administering the Test 223
Scoring the Test 225
Analyzing the Test 225
Quantitative Item Analysis 226
Qualitative Item Analysis 232
Item Analysis Modifications for the Criterion-Referenced Test 233
Debriefing 238
Debriefing Guidelines 238
The Process of Evaluating Classroom Achievement 240
Summary 241
For Practice 242
CHAPTER 12 MARKS AND MARKING SYSTEMS 243
What Is the Purpose of a Mark? 243
Why Be Concerned about Marking? 243
What Should a Mark Reflect? 244
Marking Systems 245
Types of Comparisons 245
Types of Symbols 249
Combining and Weighting the Components of a Mark 251
Who Is the Better Teacher? 252
Combining Grades into a Single Mark 253
Practical Approaches to Equating Before Weighting in the Busy Classroom 256
Front-End Equating 256
Back-End Equating 257
Summary 260
For Practice 260
CHAPTER 13 SUMMARIZING DATA AND MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY 262
What Are Statistics? 262
Why Use Statistics? 263
Tabulating Frequency Data 264
The List 264
The Simple Frequency Distribution 265
The Grouped Frequency Distribution 265
Steps in Constructing a Grouped Frequency
Distribution 267
Graphing Data 270
The Bar Graph, or Histogram 271
The Frequency Polygon 271
The Smooth Curve 273
Measures of Central Tendency 277
The Mean 278
The Median 279
The Mode 284
The Measures of Central Tendency in Various Distributions 285
Summary 287
For Practice 289
CHAPTER 14 VARIABILITY, THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION, AND CONVERTED SCORES 290
The Range 290
The Semi-Interquartile Range (SIQR) 291
The Standard Deviation 292
The Deviation Score Method for Computing the Standard Deviation 296
The Raw Score Method for Computing the Standard Deviation 297
The Normal Distribution 299
Properties of the Normal Distribution 300
Converted Scores 303
z-Scores 306
T-Scores 311
Summary 312
For Practice 313
CHAPTER 15 CORRELATION 314
The Correlation Coefficient 315
Strength of a Correlation 316
Direction of a Correlation 316
Scatterplots 317
Where Does r Come From? 319
Causality 320
Other Interpretive Cautions 322
Summary 324
For Practice 325
CHAPTER 16 VALIDITY EVIDENCE 326
Why Evaluate Tests? 326
Types of Validity Evidence 326
Content Validity Evidence 327
Criterion-Related Validity Evidence 327
Construct Validity Evidence 329
What Have We Been Saying? A Review 330
Interpreting Validity Coefficients 332
Content Validity Evidence 332
Concurrent and Predictive Validity Evidence 332
Summary 336
For Practice 337
CHAPTER 17 RELIABILITY 338
Methods of Estimating Reliability 338
Test-Retest or Stability 338
Alternate Forms or Equivalence 340
Internal Consistency 340
Interpreting Reliability Coefficients 343
Summary 346
For Practice 347
CHAPTER 18 ACCURACY AND ERROR 348
Error-What Is It? 348
The Standard Error of Measurement 350
Using the Standard Error of Measurement 351
More Applications 354
Standard Deviation or Standard Error of Measurement? 356
Why All the Fuss about Error? 357
Error within Test-Takers 357
Error Within the Test 357
Error in Test Administration 358
Error in Scoring 358
Sources of Error Influencing Various Reliability Coefficients 359
Test-Retest 359
Alternate Forms 359
Internal Consistency 360
Band Interpretation 361
Steps: Band Interpretation 362
A Final Word 366
Summary 366
For Practice 368
CHAPTER 19 STANDARDIZED TESTS 369
What Is a Standardized Test? 370
Do Test Stimuli, Administration, and Scoring Have to Be Standardized? 371
Standardized Testing: Effects of Accommodations and Alternative Assessments 371
Uses of Standardized Achievement Tests 372
Will Performance and Portfolio Assessment Make Standardized Tests Obsolete? 373
Administering Standardized Tests 374
Types of Scores Offered for Standardized Achievement Tests 376
Grade Equivalents 376
Age Equivalents 377
Percentile Ranks 378
Standard Scores 379
Interpreting Standardized Tests: Test and Student Factors 381
Test-Related Factors 381
Student-Related Factors 387
Aptitude-Achievement Discrepancies 392
Interpreting Standardized Tests: Parent-Teacher
Conferences and Educational Decision Making 395
An Example: Pressure to Change an Educational Placement 396
A Second Example: Pressure from the Opposite Direction 400
Interpreting Standardized Tests: Score Reports from Publishers 403
The Press-On Label 406
A Criterion-Referenced Skills Analysis or Mastery Report 407
An Individual Performance Profile 408
Other Publisher Reports and Services 409
Summary 410
For Practice 412
CHAPTER 20 TYPES OF STANDARDIZED TESTS 413
Standardized Achievement Tests 413
Achievement Test Batteries, or Survey Batteries 414
Single-Subject Achievement Tests 415
Diagnostic Achievement Tests 416
Standardized Academic Aptitude Tests 416
The History of Academic Aptitude Testing 416
Stability of IQ Scores 417
What Do IQ Tests Predict? 418
Individually Administered Academic Aptitude Tests 419
Group-Administered Academic Aptitude Tests 420
Standardized Personality Assessment Instruments 421
What Is Personality? 421
Objective Personality Tests 422
Projective Personality Tests 423
Summary 424
For Discussion 424
CHAPTER 21 IN THE CLASSROOM: A SUMMARY DIALOGUE 425
High-Stakes Testing and NCLB 430
Response-to-Intervention (RTI) 431
Criterion-Referenced versus Norm-Referenced Tests 431
New Responsibilities for Teachers under IDEIA 432
Instructional Objectives 432
The Test Blueprint 433
Essay Items and the Essay Scoring Guides 433
Reliability, Validity Evidence, and Test Statistics 434
Grades and Marks 435
Some Final Thoughts 436
Appendix A Math Skills Review 439
Appendix B Preparing For The Praxis II: Principles Of Learning And Teaching Assessment 446
Appendix C Determining The Median When There Are Multiple Tied Middle Scores 456
Appendix D Pearson Product-Moment Correlation 458
Appendix E Statistics And Measurement Texts 460
Appendix F Answers For Practice Questions 461
Suggested Readings 467
References 473
Credits 479
Index 481
Tests Are Only Tools; Their Usefulness Can Vary 1
Why We Developed This Text: Enhancing Test Usefulness 2
Technical Adequacy 2
Test User Competency 3
Matching the Test's Intended Purpose 3
Matching Diverse Test-Takers to the Test 5
Test Results and Diversity Considerations 6
Tests Are Only Tools: A Video Beats a Photo 6
Defining Some Test-Related Terms 8
Tests, Assessments, and the Assessment Process 8
Types of Tests/Assessments 10
Recent Developments: Impact on Classroom Testing and
Measurement 13
Education Reform Meets Special Education Reform: NCLB and IDEIA 14
The Impact of the IDEIA and NCLB on Regular Education Teachers 15
Other Trends: Technology, Globalization, and International Competitiveness 16
Competency Testing for Teachers 17
Increased Interest from Professional Groups 18
A Professional Association-Book Publisher Information Initiative 18
Effects on the Classroom Teacher 19
About the Text 22
What If You're "No Good in Math"? 22
Summary 22
For Discussion 24
CHAPTER 2 HIGH-STAKES TESTING 25
Comparing NCLB and State High-Stakes Testing Programs 25
Recent NCLB Developments 27
High-Stakes Testing: A Nationwide Phenomenon 28
High-Stakes Tests Are Only Tools 29
Why Does High-Stakes Testing Matter? 30
Promotion and Graduation Decisions Affect Students 31
Principal and Teacher Incentives Are Linked to HST Performance 32
Property Values, Business Decisions, and Politics and HST 33
The Lake Wobegon Effect and HST 33
The Evolution of High-Stakes Testing, Academic Standards, and Common Core State Standards 34
Education Reform 34
Standards-Based Reform 34
Types of High-Stakes Tests 37
Criterion-Referenced High-Stakes Tests 37
Norm-Referenced High-Stakes Tests 38
Benchmark Tests and High-Stakes Tests 43
The High-Stakes Testing Backlash 43
Is There Really a High-Stakes Testing Backlash? 45
What Do National Organizations Say about High-Stakes Tests? 46
AERA's 12 Conditions for HST Programs 47
How Can a Teacher Use the 12 Conditions? 49
Helping Students (and Yourself) Prepare for High-Stakes Tests 50
Focus on the Task, Not Your Feelings about It 50
Inform Students and Parents about the Importance of the Test 51
Teach Test-Taking Skills as Part of Regular Instruction 52
As the Test Day Approaches, Respond to Student Questions Openly and Directly 53
Take Advantage of Whatever Preparation Materials Are Available 54
Summary 54
For Discussion 55
CHAPTER 3 RESPONSE TO INTERVENTION (RTI) AND THE REGULAR CLASSROOM TEACHER 57
What Is RTI? 57
What If You Have Not Heard of RTI Before? 58
How New Is RTI? 58
Do Regular Education Teachers Need to Know about RTI? 58
An RTI Scenario 59
How Important Is RTI to Regular Education Teachers? 61
Can a Special Education Law Reform Regular Education? 62
How Is RTI Supposed to Help Students and Schools? 62
RTI Definitions, Components, and Implementation Approaches 63
RTI Definitions 63
RTI Components 64
RTI Implementation Approaches 70
How Widely Is RTI Being Implemented? 72
Some Benefits of RTI 73
RTI: The Promise and Some Controversies 73
Technical Issues: Reliability, Validity, and Fairness 73
Implementation Issues 74
Summary 74
For Discussion 76
CHAPTER 4 THE PURPOSE OF TESTING 77
Testing, Accountability, and the Classroom Teacher 78
Types of Educational Decisions 80
A Pinch of Salt 83
"Pinching" in the Classroom 84
What to Measure 85
How to Measure 86
Written Tests 86
Summary 88
For Discussion 88
CHAPTER 5 NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTS AND CONTENT VALIDITY EVIDENCE 89
Defining Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Tests 89
Comparing Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Tests 93
Differences in the Construction of Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Tests 94
Norm- and Criterion-Referenced Tests and Linguistic and Cultural Diversity 95
Norm- and Criterion-Referenced Tests and Validity Evidence 96
A Three-Stage Model of Classroom Measurement 97
Why Objectives? Why Not Just Write Test Items? 99
Where Do Goals Come From? 101
Are There Different Kinds of Goals and Objectives? 102
How Can Instructional Objectives Make a Teacher's Job Easier? 105
Summary 106
For Discussion 107
CHAPTER 6 MEASURING LEARNING OUTCOMES 109
Writing Instructional Objectives 109
Identifying Learning Outcomes 109
Identifying Observable and Directly Measurable Learning Outcomes 110
Stating Conditions 111
Stating Criterion Levels 112
Keeping It Simple and Straightforward 113
Matching Test Items to Instructional Objectives 114
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives 116
Cognitive Domain 116
Affective Domain 120
The Psychomotor Domain 122
The Test Blueprint 123
Content Outline 125
Categories 125
Number of Items 125
Functions 125
Summary 127
For Practice 127
CHAPTER 7 WRITING OBJECTIVE TEST ITEMS 129
Which Format? 129
True-False Items 131
Suggestions for Writing True-False Items 133
Matching Items 134
Faults Inherent in Matching Items 134
Suggestions for Writing Matching Items 137
Multiple-Choice Items 138
Higher-Level Multiple-Choice Questions 143
Suggestions for Writing Multiple-Choice Items 146
Completion Items 147
Suggestions for Writing Completion Items 150
Gender and Racial Bias in Test Items 150
Guidelines for Writing Test Items 151
Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Objective Item Formats 152
True-False Tests 152
Matching Tests 153
Multiple-Choice Tests 153
Completion Tests 154
Summary 154
For Practice 155
CHAPTER 8 WRITING ESSAY TEST ITEMS 156
What Is an Essay Item? 157
Essay Items Should Measure Complex Cognitive Skills or Processes 157
Essay Items: Extended or Restricted Response 158
Examples of Restricted Response Essays 160
Pros and Cons of Essay Items 161
Advantages of the Essay Item 161
Disadvantages of the Essay Item 162
Suggestions for Writing Essay Items 162
Scoring Essay Questions 164
Scoring Extended Response and Higher Level Questions 166
General Essay Scoring Suggestions 170
Assessing Knowledge Organization 171
Open-Book Questions and Exams 174
Some Open-Book Techniques 176
Guidelines for Planning Essays, Knowledge Organization, and Open-Book Questions and Exams 180
Summary 181
For Practice 182
CHAPTER 9 PERFORMANCE-BASED ASSESSMENT 183
Performance Tests: Direct Measures of Competence 183
Performance Tests Can Assess Processes and Products 185
Performance Tests Can Be Embedded in Lessons 185
Performance Tests Can Assess Affective and Social Skills 186
Developing Performance Tests for Your Learners 187
Step 1: Deciding What to Test 188
Step 2: Designing the Assessment Context 190
Step 3: Specifying the Scoring Rubrics 193
Step 4: Specifying Testing Constraints 199
A Final Word 200
Summary 200
For Discussion and Practice 201
CHAPTER 10 PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT 203
Rationale for the Portfolio 204
Ensuring Validity of the Portfolio 204
Developing Portfolio Assessments 205
Step 1: Deciding on the Purposes for a Portfolio 205
Step 2: Identifying Cognitive Skills and Dispositions 206
Step 3: Deciding Who Will Plan the Portfolio 206
Step 4: Deciding Which Products to Put in the Portfolio and How Many Samples of Each Product 206
Step 5: Building the Portfolio Rubrics 207
Step 6: Developing a Procedure to Aggregate All Portfolio Ratings 212
Step 7: Determining the Logistics 215
Summary 218
For Practice 219
CHAPTER 11 ADMINISTERING, ANALYZING, AND IMPROVING THE TEST OR ASSESSMENT 220
Assembling the Test 220
Packaging the Test 221
Reproducing the Test 223
Administering the Test 223
Scoring the Test 225
Analyzing the Test 225
Quantitative Item Analysis 226
Qualitative Item Analysis 232
Item Analysis Modifications for the Criterion-Referenced Test 233
Debriefing 238
Debriefing Guidelines 238
The Process of Evaluating Classroom Achievement 240
Summary 241
For Practice 242
CHAPTER 12 MARKS AND MARKING SYSTEMS 243
What Is the Purpose of a Mark? 243
Why Be Concerned about Marking? 243
What Should a Mark Reflect? 244
Marking Systems 245
Types of Comparisons 245
Types of Symbols 249
Combining and Weighting the Components of a Mark 251
Who Is the Better Teacher? 252
Combining Grades into a Single Mark 253
Practical Approaches to Equating Before Weighting in the Busy Classroom 256
Front-End Equating 256
Back-End Equating 257
Summary 260
For Practice 260
CHAPTER 13 SUMMARIZING DATA AND MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY 262
What Are Statistics? 262
Why Use Statistics? 263
Tabulating Frequency Data 264
The List 264
The Simple Frequency Distribution 265
The Grouped Frequency Distribution 265
Steps in Constructing a Grouped Frequency
Distribution 267
Graphing Data 270
The Bar Graph, or Histogram 271
The Frequency Polygon 271
The Smooth Curve 273
Measures of Central Tendency 277
The Mean 278
The Median 279
The Mode 284
The Measures of Central Tendency in Various Distributions 285
Summary 287
For Practice 289
CHAPTER 14 VARIABILITY, THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION, AND CONVERTED SCORES 290
The Range 290
The Semi-Interquartile Range (SIQR) 291
The Standard Deviation 292
The Deviation Score Method for Computing the Standard Deviation 296
The Raw Score Method for Computing the Standard Deviation 297
The Normal Distribution 299
Properties of the Normal Distribution 300
Converted Scores 303
z-Scores 306
T-Scores 311
Summary 312
For Practice 313
CHAPTER 15 CORRELATION 314
The Correlation Coefficient 315
Strength of a Correlation 316
Direction of a Correlation 316
Scatterplots 317
Where Does r Come From? 319
Causality 320
Other Interpretive Cautions 322
Summary 324
For Practice 325
CHAPTER 16 VALIDITY EVIDENCE 326
Why Evaluate Tests? 326
Types of Validity Evidence 326
Content Validity Evidence 327
Criterion-Related Validity Evidence 327
Construct Validity Evidence 329
What Have We Been Saying? A Review 330
Interpreting Validity Coefficients 332
Content Validity Evidence 332
Concurrent and Predictive Validity Evidence 332
Summary 336
For Practice 337
CHAPTER 17 RELIABILITY 338
Methods of Estimating Reliability 338
Test-Retest or Stability 338
Alternate Forms or Equivalence 340
Internal Consistency 340
Interpreting Reliability Coefficients 343
Summary 346
For Practice 347
CHAPTER 18 ACCURACY AND ERROR 348
Error-What Is It? 348
The Standard Error of Measurement 350
Using the Standard Error of Measurement 351
More Applications 354
Standard Deviation or Standard Error of Measurement? 356
Why All the Fuss about Error? 357
Error within Test-Takers 357
Error Within the Test 357
Error in Test Administration 358
Error in Scoring 358
Sources of Error Influencing Various Reliability Coefficients 359
Test-Retest 359
Alternate Forms 359
Internal Consistency 360
Band Interpretation 361
Steps: Band Interpretation 362
A Final Word 366
Summary 366
For Practice 368
CHAPTER 19 STANDARDIZED TESTS 369
What Is a Standardized Test? 370
Do Test Stimuli, Administration, and Scoring Have to Be Standardized? 371
Standardized Testing: Effects of Accommodations and Alternative Assessments 371
Uses of Standardized Achievement Tests 372
Will Performance and Portfolio Assessment Make Standardized Tests Obsolete? 373
Administering Standardized Tests 374
Types of Scores Offered for Standardized Achievement Tests 376
Grade Equivalents 376
Age Equivalents 377
Percentile Ranks 378
Standard Scores 379
Interpreting Standardized Tests: Test and Student Factors 381
Test-Related Factors 381
Student-Related Factors 387
Aptitude-Achievement Discrepancies 392
Interpreting Standardized Tests: Parent-Teacher
Conferences and Educational Decision Making 395
An Example: Pressure to Change an Educational Placement 396
A Second Example: Pressure from the Opposite Direction 400
Interpreting Standardized Tests: Score Reports from Publishers 403
The Press-On Label 406
A Criterion-Referenced Skills Analysis or Mastery Report 407
An Individual Performance Profile 408
Other Publisher Reports and Services 409
Summary 410
For Practice 412
CHAPTER 20 TYPES OF STANDARDIZED TESTS 413
Standardized Achievement Tests 413
Achievement Test Batteries, or Survey Batteries 414
Single-Subject Achievement Tests 415
Diagnostic Achievement Tests 416
Standardized Academic Aptitude Tests 416
The History of Academic Aptitude Testing 416
Stability of IQ Scores 417
What Do IQ Tests Predict? 418
Individually Administered Academic Aptitude Tests 419
Group-Administered Academic Aptitude Tests 420
Standardized Personality Assessment Instruments 421
What Is Personality? 421
Objective Personality Tests 422
Projective Personality Tests 423
Summary 424
For Discussion 424
CHAPTER 21 IN THE CLASSROOM: A SUMMARY DIALOGUE 425
High-Stakes Testing and NCLB 430
Response-to-Intervention (RTI) 431
Criterion-Referenced versus Norm-Referenced Tests 431
New Responsibilities for Teachers under IDEIA 432
Instructional Objectives 432
The Test Blueprint 433
Essay Items and the Essay Scoring Guides 433
Reliability, Validity Evidence, and Test Statistics 434
Grades and Marks 435
Some Final Thoughts 436
Appendix A Math Skills Review 439
Appendix B Preparing For The Praxis II: Principles Of Learning And Teaching Assessment 446
Appendix C Determining The Median When There Are Multiple Tied Middle Scores 456
Appendix D Pearson Product-Moment Correlation 458
Appendix E Statistics And Measurement Texts 460
Appendix F Answers For Practice Questions 461
Suggested Readings 467
References 473
Credits 479
Index 481