Analyzing English Grammar

Preface xii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION 1
What Is Grammar? 2
Grammar Versus Usage 6
Descriptive Grammars 8
Grammatical Prototypes 10
Learning About Grammar 13
Aids to Learning About Language 15
Diagramming 15
IC Analysis 16
Phrase Structure Trees 17
Suggestions for Reading This Book 17
Key Terms 18
Endnotes 18
CHAPTER 2
VARIETIES OF ENGLISH 19
Regional Dialects 21
Social Dialects 23
Standard American English 25
Styles 28
Second Language Acquisition 30
English in an International Context 32
Summary 35
Key Terms 36
Endnotes 36
CHAPTER 3
THE MORPHOLOGY OF ENGLISH 37
Morphemes 38
Allomorphs 43
Inflectional Morphemes 43
Noun Inflections 45
Verb Inflections 47
Adjective and Adverb Inflections 50
Functional Shift 50
Derivational Morphemes 52
Form Classes and Structure Classes 56
A Word About Words 57
Summary 59
Review Exercises 59
Key Terms 62
CHAPTER 4
FORM-CLASS WORDS 63
Form and Function 64
Forms with Overlapping Functions 65
Nouns 66
Prototypes and Peripheral Cases 69
Subclasses and Features 70
Noun Subclasses 71
Verbs 73
Verb Subclasses 75
Adjectives 76
Adjective Subclasses 78
Adverbs 81
Adverb Subclasses 84
Analyzing Form and Function 84
Comments and Suggestions 88
Summary 91
Review Exercises 91
Key Terms 93
Endnote 93
CHAPTER 5
STRUCTURE-CLASS WORDS, PART I: Modifying Words 95
Structure-Class Versus Form-Class Words 95
Determiners 99
Diagrams and Trees 104
Auxiliaries 106
Modal Auxiliaries 107
Have 108
Be 108
Do 109
Diagrams and Trees 111
Qualifiers 111
Diagrams and Trees 113
Pronouns 117
Pronouns as Noun-Phrase Substitutes 117
Personal Pronouns 118
Reflexive Pronouns 121
Reciprocal Pronouns 123
Indefinite Pronouns 123
Summary 127
Review Exercises 127
Key Terms 129
CHAPTER 6
STRUCTURE-CLASS WORDS, PART II: Connecting Words 131
Prepositions 131
Diagrams and Trees 133
Differences Between Prepositions and Adverbs 135
Differences Between Prepositions and Verb Particles 135
Differences Between Verb Particles and Adverbs 136
Conjunctions 138
Coordinating Conjunctions 138
Conjunctive Adverbs 141
Subordinating Conjunctions 142
Relatives 148
Interrogatives 152
Summary 154
Review Exercises 154
Key Terms 156
Endnote 156
CHAPTER 7
PHRASES 157
Subjects and Predicates 157
Form and Function 163
Recognizing Phrase Types 164
The Main Verb Phrase 170
Creating Verb Phrases 176
Time, Tense, and Aspect 184
Simple Tenses 185
Finite and Nonfinite Verb Forms 185
Compound Verb Forms?Perfect and Progressive 188
The Meaning of Modals 192
Other Auxiliaries 194
Have and Be as Main Verbs 196
The Subjunctive Mood 198
Summary 199
Review Exercises 200
Key Terms 203
Endnotes 203
CHAPTER 8
FIVE BASIC SENTENCE TYPES 205
Binary Structure 206
Type I?The Intransitive Type 208
Types II, III, and IV?Linking (Copular) Verbs 215
Type II?The Verb Be Requiring Adverbs of Time or Place 215
Type III?The Linking Verb Type with Adjectival Subject
Complement 220
Type IV?The Linking Verb Type with Nominal Subject
Complement 225
Type V?The Transitive Type 229
Transitive Verbs with Reflexive and Reciprocal Direct
Objects 233
Transitive Verbs with Object Complements 234
Distinguishing Between Transitive and Linking Verb Sentence
Types 236
Verbs That Function in More Than One Sentence Type 237
Summary 241
Review Exercises 244
Key Terms 246
CHAPTER 9
BASIC SENTENCE TRANSFORMATIONS 247
The Indirect Object Transformation 248
Indirect Objects and Object Complements 251
The Passive Transformation 254
Direct and Indirect Objects 258
Other Transformations 265
Negative Sentences 266
Negative Sentences with Auxiliary Verbs 267
Negative Sentences with Be 268
Negative Sentences Without Auxiliary Verbs or Be 268
Interrogative Sentences 274
Yes/No Questions 274
Wh-Questions 278
Imperative Sentences 287
Verbs in Imperative Sentences 288
Summary 290
Review Exercises 290
Key Terms 292
CHAPTER 10
FINITE VERB CLAUSES, PART I:
Adverbial and Adjectival Clauses 293
Sentence Varieties 295
Subordinate Clauses 299
Diagramming Subordinate Clauses 304
Subordinate Clauses That Can Function Adverbially
or Adjectivally 306
Relative Clauses 307
Relative Clauses Within Prepositional Phrases 310
Diagramming Relative Clauses 311
The Omission of Relative Pronouns 315
Relative Adverbs 317
Relative Clauses Contrasted with Adverbial Subordinate Clauses 320
Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Relative Clauses 322
Summary 327
Review Exercises 327
Key Terms 330
CHAPTER 11
FINITE VERB CLAUSES, PART II:
Nominal Clauses 331
That-Clauses 331
Differences Between Relative Clauses and Nominal That-Clauses 334
Appositive That-Clauses 335
Relative Clauses and Deletion Transformations: Appositives 337
Functions of Nominal That-Clauses 341
Diagramming Nominal That-Clauses 342
Interrogative Clauses 345
Diagramming Interrogative Clauses 348
Rhetorical Problems in Using Dependent Clauses 351
Elliptical Dependent Clauses 354
Summary 356
Review Exercises 356
Key Terms 359
CHAPTER 12
NONFINITE VERB PHRASES 361
Infinitive Phrases 362
Diagramming Infinitive Phrases 365
Passive Infinitives 370
Infinitives Without To 370
Functions of Infinitive Phrases 372
Adverbial Infinitives 372
Adjectival Infinitives 373
Nominal Infinitives 374
Differences Between Infinitives and Prepositional Phrases 377
Present Participle Phrases 377
Functions of Present Participle Phrases 379
Diagramming Present Participle Phrases 380
Differences Between Present Participles and Adjectives 385
Gerunds 386
Functions of Gerunds and Gerund Phrases 388
Differences Between Gerunds and Nouns 389
Past Participle Phrases 392
Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Participle Phrases 394
Summary 402
Review Exercises 402
Key Terms 406
APPENDIX:
The Sounds of American English 407
Consonants of English 408
Allophones 412
Vowels of English 413
American Pronunciation 419
Pronunciation and Spelling 419
Phonics and Phonemic Awareness 421
Summary 422
Review Exercises 422
Key Terms 422
Glossary 423
Index 435