Cellulosic Energy Cropping Systems

Foreword xvii Series Preface xix Preface xxi List of Contributors xxiii 1 Introduction to Cellulosic Energy Crops 1 Mark Laser and Lee Lynd 1.1 Cellulosic Biomass: Definition, Photosynthesis, and Composition 1 1.2 Cellulosic Biomass Properties and Their Relevance to Downstream Processing 4 1.3 Desirable Traits and Potential Supply of Cellulosic Energy Crops 7 1.4 The Case for Cellulosic Energy Crops 8 2 Conversion Technologies for the Production of Liquid Fuels and Biochemicals 15 Sofie Dobbelaere, Tom Anthonis, and Wim Soetaert 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Biomass Conversion Technologies 16 2.3 (Bio)Chemical Conversion Route 17 2.4 Thermochemical Conversion Route 23 2.5 Summary and Conclusions 27 3 Technologies for Production of Heat and Electricity 31 Jacob J. Jacobson and Kara G. Cafferty 3.1 Introduction 31 3.2 Combustion 33 3.3 Repowering 35 3.4 Gasification 35 3.5 Pyrolysis 35 3.6 Direct Hydrothermal Liquefaction 37 3.7 Anaerobic Digestion 37 3.8 Integrated Biorefineries 38 3.9 Summary 39 4 Miscanthus Genetics and Agronomy for Bioenergy Feedstock 43 Maryse Brancourt-Hulmel, Charlotte Demay, Emeline Rosiau, Fabien Ferchaud, Linda Bethencourt, Stephanie Arnoult, Camille Dauchy, Nicolas Beaudoin, and Hubert Boizard 4.1 Introduction 43 4.2 Phylogeny, Growth, Yield and Chemical Composition 44 4.3 Cultural Practices 50 4.4 Genetic Improvement 57 4.5 Conclusion 65 5 Switchgrass 75 Rob Mitchell, D.K. Lee, and Michael Casler 5.1 Overview 75 5.2 Phylogeny, Growth, Yield and Chemical Composition 75 5.3 Cultural Practices 78 5.4 Genetic Improvement 82 5.5 Summary 85 6 Sugarcane, Energy Cane and Napier Grass 91 Edward P. Richard, Jr. and William F. Anderson 6.1 Sugar and Energy Cane 91 6.2 Napier grass 99 7 Sorghum 109 William L. Rooney 7.1 Introduction 109 7.2 Sorghum Phenology, Genetic Structure and Types 110 7.3 Cultural Practices 114 7.4 Genetic Improvement 118 7.5 Summary and Conclusions 123 8 Crop Residues 131 Douglas L. Karlen and David R. Huggins 8.1 Overview 131 8.2 Corn Stover 133 8.3 Wheat Straw 139 8.4 Future Opportunities 143 9 Eucalyptus 149 Michael W. Cunningham and Bijay Tamang 9.1 Phylogeny, Growth, Yield and Chemical Composition 149 9.2 Cultural Practices 153 9.3 Genetic Improvement 155 10 Pine 161 David B. South and Mathew Smidt 10.1 Introduction 161 10.2 Cultural Practices 165 10.3 Harvesting 173 10.4 Genetic Improvement 176 10.5 Economics 177 10.6 Government Regulations 179 10.7 Final Comments 180 11 Poplar 183 Andrzej Klasa and Doug Karlen 11.1 Introduction 183 11.2 Cultural Practices 184 11.3 Genetic Improvement 193 11.4 Utilization 193 11.5 Carbon Sequestration and Soil Response 194 12 Development and Deployment of Willow Biomass Crops 201 Timothy A. Volk, L.P. Abrahamson, T. Buchholz, J. Caputo, and M. Eisenbies 12.1 Introduction 201 12.2 Shrub Willow Characteristics 202 12.3 Production Systems for Willow Biomass Crops 204 12.4 Willow Biomass Crop Economics 208 12.5 Environmental and Rural Development Benefits 211 12.6 Commercial Development 212 12.7 Conclusions 214 13 Herbaceous Biomass Logistics 219 John S. Cundiff 13.1 Introduction 219 13.2 Typical Biomass Logistics Constraints 220 13.3 Linkage in Logistics Chain 221 13.4 Plant Size 225 13.5 Harvesting 226 13.6 Highway Hauling 229 13.7 Development of Concept for Multibale Handling Unit 232 13.8 Functionality Analysis for Rack System Concept 236 13.9 Cost Analysis for 24-h Hauling Using Rack System Concept 240 13.10 Summary 242 Appendix 13.A Cost to Operate Workhorse Forklift (Example for Equipment Cost Calculations) 244 Appendix 13.B Operational Plan for "Rack System" Example 245 B.1 Operation Plan for SSL Loading 245 B.2 Influence of SSL Size on Rack Loading Operations 246 B.3 Total Trucks Required - 24-h Hauling 247 B.4 Total Racks Required - 24-h Hauling 248 14 Woody Biomass Logistics 251 Robert Keefe, Nathaniel Anderson, John Hogland, and Ken Muhlenfeld 14.1 Introduction 251 14.2 Overview of the Woody Biomass Supply Chain 252 14.3 Woody Biomass from Dedicated Energy Crops 254 14.4 Woody Biomass from Stand Thinning 255 14.5 Logging Residues 256 14.6 Harvesting and Processing Systems and Equipment 260 14.7 Woody Biomass Transportation 266 14.8 Pretreatment 269 14.9 Handling and Storage 271 14.10 Logistics Management 273 15 Economic Sustainability of Cellulosic Energy Cropping Systems 281 Kelly D. Zering 15.1 Introduction 281 15.2 Economics of Crop Production 282 15.3 Risk and Uncertainty 287 15.4 Risk Mitigation and Management 291 15.5 Supply, Demand and Prices 293 15.6 The Start-Up Barrier 295 15.7 Elements of Sustainability 296 15.8 Policy 296 15.9 Summary 297 16 Environmental Sustainability of Cellulosic Energy Cropping Systems 299 Richard Lowrance and Adam Davis 16.1 Introduction 299 16.2 Greenhouse Gas Effects 301 16.3 Soil Properties 302 16.4 Water Quantity and Quality 303 16.5 Invasive Species Effects/Mitigation/Enhancement 305 16.6 Wildlife and Biodiversity 307 16.7 Conclusions 308 17 Social Sustainability of Cellulosic Energy Cropping Systems 315 Cornelia Butler Flora and Charles F. Curtiss 17.1 Introduction 315 17.2 Standards for Social Sustainability 316 17.3 Forest-Based Biofuels 317 17.4 Biofuel Social Sustainability Standards 318 17.5 Summary and Conclusions 331 18 Commercialization of Cellulosic Energy Cropping Systems 335 Sam W. Jackson 18.1 Overview 335 18.2 Introduction 335 18.3 Land Availability 336 18.4 Crop Selection and Contracting 337 18.5 Financing Establishment 339 18.6 Agronomic Efficiencies and Management 339 18.7 Identifying and Addressing Risks 341 18.8 Conclusion 343 19 Selected Global Examples of Cellulosic Cropping System Trends 345 Douglas L. Karlen, Marcelo Valadares Galdos, Sarita Candida Rabelo, Henrique Continho Junqueira Franco, Antonio Bonomi, Jihong Li, Shi-Zhong Li, Jaya Shankar Tumuluru, and Leslie Ovard 19.1 Overview 345 19.2 Cellulosic Ethanol in Brazil 346 19.3 Cellulosic Bioenergy in China 350 19.4 Bioenergy in India 355 19.5 Summary 360 Acknowledgements 360 References 361 Index 365