Applied Water Science: Fundamentals and Applications

Preface xix 1 Sorbent-Based Microextraction Techniques for the Analysis of Phthalic Acid Esters in Water Samples 1 Miguel Ángel González-Curbelo, Javier González-Sálamo, Diana A. Varela-Martínez and Javier Hernández-Borges 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 Solid-Phase Microextraction 6 1.3 Stir Bar Sorptive Extraction 25 1.4 Solid-Phase Extraction 26 1.5 Others Minor Sorbent-Based Microextraction Techniques 48 1.6 Conclusions 52 Acknowledgements 53 References 53 2 Occurrence, Human Health Risks, and Removal of Pharmaceuticals in Aqueous Systems: Current Knowledge and Future Perspectives 63 Willis Gwenzi, Artwell Kanda, Concilia Danha, Norah Muisa-Zikali and Nhamo Chaukura 2.1 Introduction 64 2.2 Occurrence and Behavior of Pharmaceutics in Aquatic Systems 65 2.2.1 Nature and Sources 65 2.2.2 Dissemination and Occurrence in Aquatic Systems 67 2.2.3 Behaviour in Aquatic Systems 71 2.3 Human Health Risks and Their Mitigation 73 2.3.1 Human Exposure Pathways 73 2.3.2 Potential Human Health Risks 74 2.3.3 Human Health Risks: A Developing World Perspective 81 2.3.4 Removal of Pharmaceuticals 82 2.3.4.1 Conventional Removal Methods 83 2.3.4.2 Advanced Removal Methods 85 2.3.4.3 Hybrid Removal Processes 88 2.4 Knowledge Gaps and Future Research Directions 88 2.4.1 Increasing Africa's Research Footprint 88 2.4.2 Hotspot Sources and Reservoirs 89 2.4.3 Behavior and Fate in Aquatic Systems 89 2.4.4 Ecotoxicology of Pharmaceuticals and Metabolites 89 2.4.5 Human Exposure Pathways 89 2.4.6 Human Toxicology and Epidemiology 90 2.4.7 Removal Capacity of Low-Cost Water Treatment Processes 90 2.5 Summary, Conclusions, and Outlook 90 Author Contributions 91 References 91 3 Oil-Water Separations 103 Pallavi Jain, Sapna Raghav and Dinesh Kumar 3.1 Introduction 103 3.2 Sources and Composition 106 3.3 Common Oil-Water Separation Techniques 106 3.4 Oil-Water Separation Technologies 107 3.4.1 Advancement in the Technology of Membrane 111 3.4.1.1 Polymer-Based Membranes 111 3.4.1.2 Ceramic-Based Membranes 111 3.5 Separation of Oil/Water Utilizing Meshes 113 3.5.1 Mechanism Involved 113 3.5.2 Meshes Functionalization 114 3.5.2.1 Inorganic Materials 115 3.5.2.2 Organic Materials 115 3.6 Separation of Oil-Water Mixture Using Bioinspired Surfaces 116 3.6.1 Nature's Lesson 116 3.6.2 Superhydrophilic/Phobic and Superoleophilic/Phobic Porous Surfaces 117 3.7 Conclusion 118 Acknowledgment 118 References 119 4 Microplastics Pollution 125 Agnieszka Dbrowska 4.1 Introduction and General Considerations 125 4.2 Key Scientific Issues Concerning Water and Microplastics Pollution 126 4.3 Marine Microplastics: From the Anthropogenic Litter to the Plastisphere 131 4.4 Social and Human Perspectives: From Sustainable Development to Civil Science 133 4.5 Conclusions and Future Projections 134 References 134 5 Chloramines Formation, Toxicity, and Monitoring Methods in Aqueous Environments 139 Rania El-Shaheny and Mahmoud El-Maghrabey 5.1 Introduction 140 5.2 Inorganic Chloramines Formation and Toxicity 140 5.3 Analytical Methods for Inorganic Chloramines 143 5.3.1 Colorimetric and Batch Methods 144 5.3.2 Chromatographic Methods 148 5.3.3 Membrane Inlet Mass Spectrometry 150 5.4 Organic Chloramines Formation and Toxicity 151 5.5 Analytical Methods for Organic Chloramines 154 5.6 Conclusions 156 References 156 6 Clay-Based Adsorbents for the Analysis of Dye Pollutants 163 Mohammad Shahadat, Momina, Yasmin, Sunil Kumar, Suzylawati Ismail, S. Wazed Ali and Shaikh Ziauddin Ahammad 6.1 Introduction 164 6.1.1 Biological Method 165 6.1.2 Physical Method 165 6.1.3 Why Only Clays? 165 6.1.4 Clay-Based Adsorbents 166 6.1.4.1 Kaolinite 166 6.1.4.2 Rectorite 168 6.1.4.3 Halloysite 169 6.1.4.4 Montmorillonite 170 6.1.4.5 Sepiolite 170 6.1.4.6 Laponite 171 6.1.4.7 Bentonite 171 6.1.4.8 Zeolites 172 6.2 Membrane Filtration 180 6.3 Chemical Treatment 181 6.3.1 Fenton and Photo-Fenton Process 182 6.3.2 Mechanism Using Acid and Base Catalyst 182 6.4 Photo-Catalytic Oxidation 186 6.5 Conclusions 188 Acknowledgments 188 References 188 7 Biochar-Supported Materials for Wastewater Treatment 199 Hanane Chakhtouna, Mohamed El Mehdi Mekhzoum, Nadia Zari, Hanane Benzeid, Abou el kacem Qaiss and Rachid Bouhfid 7.1 Introduction 200 7.2 Generalities of Biochar: Structure, Production, and Properties 201 7.2.1 Biochar Structure 201 7.2.2 Biochar Production 203 7.2.2.1 Pyrolysis 204 7.2.2.2 Gasification 204 7.2.2.3 Hydrothermal Carbonization 205 7.2.3 Biochar Properties 205 7.2.3.1 Porosity 205 7.2.3.2 Surface Area 207 7.2.3.3 Surface Functional Groups 207 7.2.3.4 Cation Exchange Capacity 210 7.2.3.5 Aromaticity 210 7.3 Biochar-Supported Materials 212 7.3.1 Magnetic Biochar Composites 212 7.3.2 Nano-Metal Oxide/Hydroxide-Biochar Composites 214 7.3.3 Functional Nanoparticles-Coated Biochar Composites 216 7.4 Conclusion 220 References 222 8 Biological Swine Wastewater Treatment 227 Aline Meireles dos Santos, Alberto Meireles dos Santos, Patricia Arrojo da Silva, Leila Queiroz Zepka and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes 8.1 Introduction 227 8.2 Swine Wastewater Characteristics 228 8.3 Microorganisms of Biological Swine Wastewater Treatment 231 8.4 Classification of Biological Swine Wastewater Treatment 235 8.5 Biological Processes For Swine Wastewater Treatment 236 8.5.1 Suspended Growth Processes 237 8.5.1.1 Activated Sludge Process 237 8.5.1.2 Sequential Batch Reactor 237 8.5.1.3 Sequencing Batch Membrane Bioreactor 238 8.5.1.4 Anaerobic Contact Process 238 8.5.1.5 Anaerobic Digestion 238 8.5.2 Attached Growth Processes 239 8.5.2.1 Rotating Biological Contactor 239 8.5.2.2 Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket 240 8.5.2.3 Anaerobic Filter 240 8.5.2.4 Hybrid Anaerobic Reactor 241 8.6 Challenges and Future Prospects in Swine Wastewater Treatment 241 References 242 9 Determination of Heavy Metal Ions From Water 255 Ritu Payal and Tapasya Tomer 9.1 Introduction 255 9.2 Detection of Heavy Metal Ions 256 9.2.1 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy 257 9.2.2 Nanomaterials 257 9.2.3 High-Resolution Surface Plasmon Resonance Spectroscopy with Anodic Stripping Voltammetry 258 9.2.4 Biosensors 259 9.2.4.1 Enzyme-Based Biosensors 260 9.2.4.2 Electrochemical Sensors 261 9.2.4.3 Polymer-Based Biosensors 261 9.2.4.4 Bacterial-Based Sensors 262 9.2.4.5 Protein-Based Sensors 262 9.2.5 Attenuated Total Reflectance 262 9.2.6 High-Resolution Differential Surface Plasmon Resonance Sensor 262 9.2.7 Hydrogels 263 9.2.8 Chelating Agents 264 9.2.9 Ionic Liquids 265 9.2.10 Polymers 266 9.2.10.1 Dendrimers 266 9.2.11 Macrocylic Compounds 266 9.2.12 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry 267 9.3 Conclusions 267 References 268 10 The Production and Role of Hydrogen-Rich Water in Medical Applications 273 N. Jafta, S. Magagula, K. Lebelo, D. Nkokha and M.J. Mochane 10.1 Introduction 273 10.2 Functional Water 275 10.3 Reduced Water 275 10.4 Production of Hydrogen-Rich Water 277 10.5 Mechanism Hydrogen Molecules During Reactive Oxygen Species Scavenging 279 10.6 Hydrogen-Rich Water Effects on the Human Body 280 10.6.1 Anti-Inflammatory Effects 280 10.6.2 Anti-Radiation Effects 281 10.6.3 Wound Healing Effects 282 10.6.4 Anti-Diabetic Effects 284 10.6.5 Anti-Neurodegenerative Effects 285 10.6.6 Anti-Cancer Effects 285 10.6.7 Anti-Arteriosclerosis Effects 285 10.7 Other Effects of Hydrogenated Water 285 10.7.1 Effect of Hydrogen-Rich Water in Hemodialysis 285 10.7.2 Effect on Anti-Cancer Drug Side Effects 286 10.8 Applications of Hydrogen-Rich Water 286 10.8.1 In Health Care 286 10.8.2 In Sports Science 288 10.8.3 In Therapeutic Applications and Delayed Progression of Diseases 289 10.9 Safety of Using Hydrogen-Rich Water 290 10.10 Concluding Remarks 291 References 292 11 Hydrosulphide Treatment 299 Marzie Fatehi and Ali Mohebbi 11.1 Introduction 300 11.1.1 Agriculture 302 11.1.2 Medical 307 11.1.3 Industrial 315 11.2 Conclusions 325 References 326 12 Radionuclides: Availability, Effect, and Removal Techniques 331 Tejaswini Sahoo, Rashmirekha Tripathy, Jagannath Panda, Madhuri Hembram, Saraswati Soren, C.K. Rath, Sunil Kumar Sahoo and Rojalin Sahu 12.1 Introduction 332 12.1.1 Available Radionuclides in the Environment 333 12.1.1.1 Uranium 333 12.1.1.2 Thorium (Z = 90) 334 12.1.1.3 Radium (Z = 88) 335 12.1.1.4 Radon (Z = 86) 336 12.1.1.5 Polonium and Lead 336 12.1.2 Presence of Radionuclide in Drinking Water 337 12.1.2.1 Health Impacts of Radionuclides 338 12.1.2.2 Health Issues Caused Due to Uranium 338 12.1.2.3 Health Issues Caused Due to Radium 339 12.1.2.4 Health Issues Caused Due to Radon 339 12.1.2.5 Health Issues Caused Due to Lead and Polonium 339 12.2 Existing Techniques and Materials Involved in Removal of Radionuclide 340 12.2.1 Ion Exchange 340 12.2.2 Reverse Osmosis 340 12.2.3 Aeration 341 12.2.4 Granulated Activated Carbon 341 12.2.5 Filtration 342 12.2.6 Lime Softening, Coagulation, and Co-Precipitation 342 12.2.7 Flocculation 343 12.2.8 Nanofilteration 343 12.2.9 Greensand Filteration 344 12.2.10 Nanomaterials 344 12.2.10.1 Radionuclides Sequestration by MOFs 344 12.2.10.2 Radionuclides Removal by COFs 345 12.2.10.3 Elimination of Radionuclides by GOs 346 12.2.10.4 Radionuclide Sequestration by CNTs 346 12.2.11 Ionic Liquids 347 12.3 Summary of Various Nanomaterial and Efficiency of Water Treating Technology 348 12.4 Management of Radioactive Waste 348 12.5 Conclusion 350 References 350 13 Applications of Membrane Contactors for Water Treatment 361 Ashish Kapoor, Elangovan Poonguzhali, Nanditha Dayanandan and Sivaraman Prabhakar 13.1 Introduction 362 13.2 Characteristics of Membrane Contactors 362 13.3 Membrane Module Configurations 365 13.4 Mathematical Aspects of Membrane Contactors 366 13.5 Advantages and Limitations of Membrane Contactors 367 13.5.1 Advantages 367 13.5.1.1 High Interfacial Contact 368 13.5.1.2 Absence of Flooding and Loading 368 13.5.1.3 Minimization of Back Mixing and Emulsification 368 13.5.1.4 Freedom for Solvent Selection 368 13.5.1.5 Reduction in Solvent Inventory 368 13.5.1.6 Modularity 369 13.5.2 Limitations 369 13.6 Membrane Contactors as Alternatives to Conventional Unit Operations 370 13.6.1 Liquid-Liquid Extraction 370 13.6.2 Membrane Distillation 370 13.6.3 Osmotic Distillation 372 13.6.4 Membrane Crystallization 372 13.6.5 Membrane Emulsification 372 13.6.6 Supported Liquid Membranes 373 13.6.7 Membrane Bioreactors 373 13.7 Applications 374 13.7.1 Wastewater Treatment 374 13.7.2 Metal Recovery From Aqueous Streams 375 13.7.3 Desalination 375 13.7.4 Concentration of Products in Food and Biotechnological Industries 375 13.7.5 Gaseous Stream Treatment 376 13.7.6 Energy Sector 376 13.8 Conclusions and Future Prospects 377 References 378 14 Removal of Sulfates From Wastewater 383 Ankita Dhillon, Rekha Sharma and Dinesh Kumar 14.1 Introduction 383 14.2 Effect of Sulfate Contamination on Human Health 384 14.3 Groundwater Distribution of Sulfate 384 14.4 Traditional Methods for Sulfate Removal 385 14.4.1 Treatment With Lime 385 14.4.2 Treatment With Limestone 386 14.4.3 Wetlands 387 14.5 Modern Day's Technique for Sulfate Removal 387 14.5.1 Nanofiltration 387 14.5.2 Electrocoagulation 388 14.5.3 Precipitation Methods 389 14.5.4 Adsorption 391 14.5.5 Ion Exchange 392 14.5.6 Biological Treatment 393 14.5.7 Removal of Sulfate by Crystallization 394 14.6 Conclusions and Future Perspective 394 Acknowledgment 395 References 395 15 Risk Assessment on Human Health With Effect of Heavy Metals 401 Athar Hussain, Manjeeta Priyadarshi, Fazil Qureshi and Salman Ahmed 15.1 Introduction 402 15.2 Toxic Effects Heavy Metals on Human Health 403 15.3 Biomarkers and Bio-Indicators for Evaluation of Heavy Metal Contamination 406 15.3.1 Hazard Quotient 407 15.3.2 Transfer Factor 407 15.3.3 Daily Intake of Metal 408 15.3.4 The Bioaccumulation Factor 409 15.3.5 Translocation Factor 410 15.3.6 Enrichment Factor 410 15.3.7 Metal Pollution Index 412 15.3.8 Health Risk Index 412 15.3.9 Pollution Load Index 412 15.3.10 Index of Geo-Accumulation 413 15.3.11 Potential Risk Index 413 15.3.12 Exposure Assessment 414 15.3.13 Carcinogenic Risk 415 References 417 16 Water Quality Monitoring and Management: Importance, Applications, and Analysis 421 Abhinav Srivastava and V.P. Sharma 16.1 Qualitative Analysis: An Introduction to Basic Concept 422 16.2 Significant Applications of Qualitative Analysis 422 16.2.1 Water Quality 424 16.2.2 Water Quality Index 426 16.3 Qualitative Analysis of Water 427 16.3.1 Sampling Procedure 428 16.3.2 Sample Transportation and Preservation 429 16.3.3 Some Important Physico-Chemical Parameters of Water Quality 431 16.4 Existing Water Quality Standards 434 16.5 Quality Assurance and Quality Control 435 16.6 Conclusions 437 References 437 17 Water Quality Standards 441 Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan 17.1 Introduction 442 17.2 Chemical Standards for Water Quality 443 17.2.1 Physical Standards 443 17.2.2 Chemical Standards for Salt Water Quality 445 17.2.3 Biological Standards 446 17.2.4 Radiation Standards 447 17.2.5 Wastewater and Water Quality 447 17.3 Inorganic Substances and Their Effect on Palatability and Household Uses 451 17.3.1 Aluminum 451 17.3.2 Calcium 451 17.3.3 Magnesium 452 17.3.4 Chlorides 452 17.4 The Philosophy of Setting Standards for Drinking Water (Proportions and Concentrations of Water Components) 457 17.5 Detection of Polychlorinated Biphenyls 458 17.6 The Future Development of Water Analysis 459 17.7 Conclusion 460 References 460 18 Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Water 469 Amita Chaudhary, Ankur Dwivedi and Ashok N Bhaskarwar 18.1 Introduction 469 18.2 Sources of Water 470 18.3 Water Quality 472 18.3.1 Physical Parameters 472 18.3.2 Chemical Parameters 472 18.3.3 Biological Parameters 474 18.3.4 Water Quality Index 474 18.4 Factors Affecting the Quality of Surface Water 476 18.5 Quantitative Analysis of the Organic Content of the Wastewater 477 18.5.1 Biochemical Oxygen Demand 477 18.5.1.1 DO Profile Curve in BOD Test 478 18.5.1.2 Significance of BOD Test 479 18.5.1.3 Nitrification in BOD Test 480 18.5.2 Chemical Oxygen Demand 480 18.5.3 Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD) 482 18.6 Treatment of Wastewater 483 18.6.1 Primary Treatment Method 484 18.6.1.1 Pre-Aeration 484 18.6.1.2 Flocculation 484 18.6.2 Secondary Treatment 485 18.6.2.1 Aerobic Biological Process 485 18.6.2.2 Anaerobic Biological Treatment 485 18.6.2.3 Activated Sludge Process 487 18.6.3 Tertiary Treatment 488 18.6.3.1 Nutrients Removal 488 18.6.3.2 Phosphorus Removal 490 18.6.3.3 Ion-Exchange Process 490 18.6.3.4 Membrane Process 491 18.6.3.5 Disinfection 491 18.6.3.6 Coagulation 491 18.7 Instrumental Analysis of Wastewater Parameters 492 18.7.1 Hardness 492 18.7.2 Alkalinity 492 18.7.3 pH 493 18.7.4 Turbidity 493 18.7.5 Total Dissolved Solids 494 18.7.6 Total Organic Carbon 494 18.7.7 Color 495 18.7.8 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy 495 18.7.9 Inductive Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectroscopy 496 18.7.10 Gas Chromatography With Mass Spectroscopy 497 18.8 Methods for Qualitative Determination of Water 497 18.8.1 Weight Loss Method 497 18.8.2 Karl Fischer Method 498 18.8.3 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy Method 499 18.8.4 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Method 499 18.9 Conclusion 500 References 500 19 Nanofluids for Water Treatment 503 Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, Wilson Nwankwo, Olusola Olaleye, Olanrewaju Akinseye, Temitope Popoola and Mohd Imran Ahamed 19.1 Introduction 504 19.2 Types of Nanofluids Used in the Treatment of Water 505 19.2.1 Zero-Valent Metal Nanoparticles 505 19.2.1.1 Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs) 505 19.2.1.2 Iron Nanoparticles 506 19.2.1.3 Zinc Nanoparticles 507 19.2.2 Metal Oxides Nanoparticles 507 19.2.2.1 Tin Dioxide (TiO2) Nanoparticles 507 19.2.2.2 Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) 508 19.2.2.3 Iron Oxides Nanoparticles 508 19.2.3 Carbon Nanotubes 509 19.2.4 Nanocomposite Membranes 509 19.2.5 Modes of Action of These Nanofluids 509 19.2.5.1 Carbon-Based Nano-Adsorbents (CNTs) for Organic Expulsion 509 19.2.5.2 Heavy Metal Removal 510 19.2.5.3 Metal-Based Nano-Adsorbents 510 19.2.5.4 Polymeric Nano-Adsorbents 511 19.2.5.5 Nanofiber Membranes 511 19.2.5.6 Some Applications of Nanofluids in the Treatment of Water 512 19.2.5.7 Informatics and AI Nanofluid-Enhanced Water Treatment 513 19.3 Conclusion and Recommendation to Knowledge 516 References 516 Index 525