Measuring Colour

About the Authors xv Series Preface xvii Preface xix Acknowledgements xxi 1 Colour Vision 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 The spectrum 1 1.3 Construction of the eye 3 1.4 The retinal receptors 4 1.5 Spectral sensitivities of the retinal receptors 5 1.6 Visual signal transmission 8 1.7 Basic perceptual attributes of colour 9 1.8 Colour constancy 10 1.9 Relative perceptual attributes of colours 11 1.10 Defective colour vision 13 1.11 Colour pseudo-stereopsis 15 2 Spectral Weighting Functions 19 2.1 Introduction 19 2.2 Scotopic spectral luminous efficiency 19 2.3 Photopic spectral luminous efficiency 21 2.4 Colour-matching functions 26 2.5 Transformation from R, G, B to X, Y, Z 32 2.6 CIE colour-matching functions 33 2.7 Metamerism 38 2.8 Spectral luminous efficiency functions for photopic vision 39 3 Relations between Colour Stimuli 41 3.1 Introduction 41 3.2 The Y tristimulus value 41 3.3 Chromaticity 42 3.4 Dominant wavelength and excitation purity 44 3.5 Colour mixtures on chromaticity diagrams 46 3.6 Uniform chromaticity diagrams 48 3.7 CIE 1976 hue-angle and saturation 51 3.8 CIE 1976 lightness, L 52 3.9 Uniform colour spaces 53 3.10 CIE 1976 colour difference formulae 57 3.11 CMC, CIE94, and CIEDE2000 color difference formulae 61 3.12 An alternative form of the CIEDE2000 colour-difference equation 64 3.13 Summary of measures and their perceptual correlates 64 3.14 Allowing for chromatic adaptation 65 3.15 The evaluation of whiteness 66 3.16 Colorimetric purity 67 3.17 Identifying stimuli of equal brightness 67 3.18 CIEDE2000 worked example 69 4 Light Sources 73 4.1 Introduction 73 4.2 Methods of producing light 74 4.3 Gas discharges 74 4.4 Sodium lamps 75 4.5 Mercury lamps 76 4.6 Fluorescent lamps 78 4.7 Xenon lamps 81 4.8 Incandescent light sources 82 4.9 Tungsten lamps 86 4.10 Tungsten halogen lamps 87 4.11 Light emitting diodes 88 4.12 Daylight 89 4.13 Standard illuminants and sources 91 4.14 CIE standard illuminant A 91 4.15 CIE illuminants B and C 92 4.16 CIE sources 93 4.17 CIE illuminants D 94 4.18 CIE indoor daylight 94 4.19 Comparison of commonly used sources 96 5 Obtaining Spectral Data and Tristimulus Values 99 5.1 Introduction 99 5.2 Radiometry and photometry 99 5.3 Spectroradiometry 100 5.4 Tele-spectroradiometry 100 5.5 Spectroradiometry of self-luminous colours 101 5.6 Spectrophotometry of non-self-luminous colours 101 5.7 Reference whites and working standards 102 5.8 Geometries of illumination and viewing 103 5.9 CIE Geometries of illumination and measurement 104 5.10 Spectroradiometers and spectrophotometers 108 5.11 Choice of illuminant 110 5.12 Calculation of tristimulus values from spectral data 111 5.13 Colorimeters using filtered photo-detectors 114 6 Metamerism and Colour Constancy 117 6.1 Introduction 117 6.2 The cause of metamerism 117 6.3 The definition of metamerism 118 6.4 Examples of metamerism in practice 119 6.5 Degree of metamerism 121 6.6 Index of metamerism for change of illuminant 122 6.7 Index of metamerism for change of observer 122 6.8 Index of metamerism for change of field size 124 6.9 Colour matches and geometry of illumination and measurement 124 6.10 Correcting for inequalities of tristimulus values 125 6.11 Terms used in connection with metamerism 126 6.12 Colour inconstancy 127 6.13 Chromatic adaptation transforms 129 6.14 The Von Kries transform 130 6.15 The CAT02 transform 131 6.16 A colour inconstancy index 134 6.17 Worked examples 135 7 Colour Rendering by Light Sources 143 7.1 Introduction 143 7.2 The meaning of colour rendering 144 7.3 CIE colour rendering indices 145 7.4 Spectral band methods 147 7.5 Other methods for assessing the colour rendering of light sources 150 7.6 Comparison of commonly used sources 151 8 Colour Order Systems 155 8.1 Introduction 155 8.2 Variables 155 8.3 Optimal colours 157 8.4 TheMunsell System 159 8.5 TheMunsell Book of Color 164 8.6 Unique hues and colour opponency 168 8.7 The Natural Colour System (NCS) 170 8.8 Natural Colour System Atlas 172 8.9 The DIN System 179 8.10 The Coloroid System 182 8.11 The Optical Society of America (OSA) System 183 8.12 The Hunter Lab System 187 8.13 The Tintometer 190 8.14 The Pantone System 191 8.15 The RAL System 191 8.16 Advantages of colour order systems 192 8.17 Disadvantages of colour order systems 192 9 Precision and Accuracy in Colorimetry 197 9.1 Introduction 197 9.2 Sample preparation 198 9.3 Thermochromism 199 9.4 Geometry of illumination and measurement 199 9.5 Reference white calibration 200 9.6 Polarisation 200 9.7 Wavelength calibration 202 9.8 Stray light 202 9.9 Zero level and linearity 202 9.10 Use of secondary standards 203 9.11 Bandwidth 203 9.12 Correcting for errors in the spectral data 204 9.13 Calculations 207 9.14 Precautions to be taken in practice 214 10 Fluorescent Colours 219 10.1 Introduction 219 10.2 Terminology 219 10.3 Use of double monochromators 220 10.4 Illumination with white light 221 10.5 Correcting for differences between an actual and the desired source 222 10.6 Two-monochromator method 224 10.7 Two-mode method 225 10.8 Filter-reduction method 226 10.9 Luminescence-weakening method 226 10.10 Practical considerations 227 11 RGB Colorimetry 231 11.1 Introduction 231 11.2 Choice and specification of matching stimuli 231 11.3 Choice of units 233 11.4 Chromaticity diagrams using r and g 233 11.5 Colour-matching functions in RGB systems 234 11.6 Derivation of XYZ from RGB tristimulus values 35 11.7 Using television and computer displays 239 12 Colorimetry with Digital Cameras 241 12.1 Introduction 241 12.2 Camera characterisation 242 12.3 Metamerism 244 12.4 Characterisation methods 244 12.5 Practical considerations in digital camera characterisation 249 12.6 Practical example 251 12.7 Discussion 254 13 Colorant Mixtures 257 13.1 Introduction 257 13.2 Non-diffusing colorants in a transmitting layer 257 13.3 Non-diffusing colorants in a layer in optical contact with a diffusing surface 259 13.4 Layers containing colorants which diffuse and absorb light 262 13.5 The use of multi-spectral analysis to reduce metamerism in art restoration 264 14 Factors Affecting the Appearance of Coloured Objects 267 14.1 Introduction 267 14.2 Measuring optical properties 267 14.3 Colour 268 14.4 Gloss 271 14.5 Translucency 279 14.6 Surface texture 281 14.7 Conclusions 289 15 The CIE Colour Appearance Model CIECAM02 293 15.1 Introduction 293 15.2 Visual areas in the observing field 294 15.3 Chromatic adaptation in CIECAM02 294 15.4 Spectral sensitivities of the cones in CIECAM02 295 15.5 Cone dynamic response functions in CIECAM02 297 15.6 Luminance adaptation in CIECAM02 297 15.7 Criteria for achromacy and for constant hue in CIECAM02 299 15.8 Effects of luminance adaptation in CIECAM02 300 15.9 Criteria for unique hues in CIECAM02 303 15.10 Redness-greenness, a, and yellowness-blueness, b, in CIECAM02 303 15.11 Hue angle, h, in CIECAM02 305 15.12 Eccentricity factor, e, in CIECAM02 305 15.13 Hue quadrature, H, and hue composition, Hc, in CIECAM02 306 15.14 The achromatic response, A, in CIECAM02 308 15.15 Correlate of lightness, J, in CIECAM02 308 15.16 Correlate of brightness, Q, in CIECAM02 309 15.17 Correlate of chroma, C, in CIECAM02 310 15.18 Correlate of colourfulness, M, in CIECAM02 311 15.19 Correlate of saturation, s, in CIECAM02 311 15.20 Comparison of CIECAM02 with the natural colour system 311 15.21 Testing model CIECAM02 312 15.22 Filtration of projected slides and CIECAM02 314 15.23 Comparison of CIECAM02 with CIECAM97s 315 15.24 Uniform colour space based on CIECAM02 315 15.25 Some problems with CIECAM02 316 15.26 Steps for using the CIECAM02 model 316 15.27 Steps for using the CIECAM02 model in reverse mode 319 15.28 Worked example for the model CIECAM02 321 16 Models of Colour Appearance for Stimuli of Different Sizes 325 16.1 Introduction 325 16.2 Stimuli of different sizes 325 16.3 Room colours 325 16.4 A model for predicting room colours 326 16.5 Steps in using the model for predicting room colours 327 17 Model of Colour Appearance for Unrelated Colours in Photopic and Mesopic Illuminances 329 17.1 Introduction 329 17.2 A model for predicting unrelated colours 330 17.3 Input data required for the model 331 17.4 Steps in using the model for unrelated colours 332 17.5 Worked example in the model for predicting unrelated colours 333 Appendices 335 Appendix 1 Radiometric and Photometric Terms and Units 337 A1.1 Introduction 337 A1.2 Physical detectors 337 A1.3 Photometric units and terms 338 A1.4 Radiant and quantum units and terms 340 A1.5 Radiation sources 340 A1.6 Terms for measures of reflection and transmission 341 A1.7 Other spectral luminous efficiency functions 343 A1.8 Mesopic photometry 343 Reference 344 Appendix 2 Spectral Luminous Efficiency Functions 345 Appendix 3 CIE Colour-Matching Functions 347 Appendix 4 CIE Spectral Chromaticity Co-Ordinates 351 Appendix 5 Relative Spectral Power Distributions of Illuminants 355 A5.1 Introduction 355 A5.2 CIE illuminants 355 A5.3 Representative fluorescent lamps 359 A5.4 Planckian radiators 368 A5.5 Gas discharge lamps 371 A5.6 Method of calculating D illuminant distributions 374 Appendix 6 Colorimetric Formulae 379 A6.1 Chromaticity relationships 379 A6.2 CIELUV, CIELAB, and U*V*W* relationships 379 Appendix 7 Calculation of the CIE Colour Rendering Indices 383 A7.1 Spectral radiance factors of test colours 383 A7.2 Worked example of the CIE colour rendering indices 388 Appendix 8 Illuminant-Observer Weights for Calculating Tristimulus Values 393 Appendix 9 Glossary of Terms 431 Reference 453 Index 455