Earth Environments: Past, Present and Future

Introduction Section I Introduction to Earth Systems 1 Introduction to Earth Systems 1.1 Introduction to Earth's Formation 1.2 Introduction to Earth Spheres 1.3 Scales in Space and Time 1.4 Systems and Feedback 1.5 Open and Closed Flow Systems 1.6 Equilibrium in Systems 1.7 Time Cycles in Systems Section II Atmospheric and Ocean Systems 2 Structure and Composition of the Atmosphere 2.1 Structure of the Atmosphere 2.2 Composition of the Atmosphere 3 Energy in the Atmosphere and the Earth Heat Budget 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Solar Radiation 4 Moisture in the Atmosphere 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The Global Hydrological Cycle 4.3 Air Stability and Instability 4.4 Clouds 4.5 Precipitation 5 Atmospheric Motion 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Atmospheric Pressure 5.3 Winds and Pressure Gradients 5.4 The Global Pattern of Atmospheric Circulation 6 Weather Systems 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Macroscale Synoptic Systems 6.3 Meso-Scale: Local Winds 6.4 Microclimates 6.5 Weather Observation and Forecasting 7 World Climates 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Classification of Climate 8 Ocean Structure and Circulation Patterns 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Physical Structure of the Oceans 8.3 Temperature Structure of the Oceans 8.4 Ocean Circulation 8.5 Sea-Level Change 9 Atmospheric Evolution 9.1 Evolution of Earth's Atmosphere 10 Principles of Climate Change 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Evidence for Climate Change 10.3 Causes of Climate Change Section III Endogenic Geological Systems 11 Earth Materials: Mineralogy, Rocks and the Rock Cycle 11. What Is a Mineral? 11.2 Rocks and the Rock Cycle 11.3 Vulcanicity and Igneous Rocks 11.4 Sedimentary Rocks, Fossils and Sedimentary Structures 11.5 Metamorphic Rocks 12 The Internal Structure of the Earth 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Evidence of Earth's Composition from Drilling 12.3 Evidence of Earth's Composition from Volcanoes 12.4 Evidence of Earth's Composition from Meteorites 12.5 Using Earthquake Seismic Waves As Earth Probes 13 Plate Tectonics and Volcanism: Processes, Products and Landforms 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Global Tectonics: How Plates, Basins and Mountains Are Created 13.3 Volcanic Processes and the Global Tectonic Model 13.4 Magma Eruption 13.5 Explosive Volcanism 13.6 Petrographic Features of Volcaniclastic Sediments 13.7 Transport and Deposition of Pyroclastic Materials 13.8 The Relationship Between Volcanic Processes and the Earth's Atmosphere and Climate 13.10 Plate Tectonics, Uniformitarianism and Earth History 14 Geotectonics: Processes, Structures and Landforms 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Tectonic Structures 14.3 Tectonic Structures As Lines of Weakness in Landscape Evolution Section IV Exogenic Geological Systems 15 Weathering Processes and Products 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Physical or Mechanical Weathering 15.3 Chemical Weathering 15.4 Measuring Weathering Rates 15.5 Weathering Landforms 16 Slope Processes and Morphology 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Slopes: Mass Movement 16.3 Hillslope Hydrology and Slope Processes 16.4 Slope Morphology and Its Evolution 17 Fluvial Processes and Landform-Sediment Assemblages 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Loose Boundary Hydraulics 17.3 The Energy of a River and Its Ability to Do Work 17.4 Transport of the Sediment Load 17.5 Types of Sediment Load 17.6 River Hydrology 17.7 The Drainage Basin 17.8 Drainage Patterns and Their Interpretation 17.9 Fluvial Channel Geomorphology 18 Carbonate Sedimentary Environments and Karst Processes and Landforms 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Carbonate Sedimentary Environments and Carbonate Rock Characteristics 18.3 Evaporites 18.4 Carbonate Facies Models 18.5 Karst Processes 19 Coastal Processes, Landforms and Sediments 19.1 Introduction to the Coastal Zone 19.2 Sea Waves, Tides and Tsunamis 19.3 Tides 19.4 Tsunamis 19.5 Coastal Landsystems 19.6 Distribution of Coastal Landsystems 19.7 The Impact of Climatic Change on Coastal Landsystems: What Lies in the Future? 20 Glacial Processes and Landsystems 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Mass Balance and Glacier Formation 20.3 Mass Balance and Glacier Flow 20.4 Surging Glaciers 20.5 Processes of Glacial Erosion and Deposition 20.6 Glacial Landsystems 21 Periglacial Processes and Landform-Sediment Assemblages 21.1 Introduction to the Term 'Periglacial' 21.2 Permafrost 21.3 Periglacial Processes and Landforms 21.4 Frost Heaving and Frost Thrusting 21.5 Landforms Associated With Frost Sorting 21.6 Needle Ice Development 21.8 Growth of Ground Ice and Its Decay, and the Development of Pingos, Thufurs and Palsas 21.9 Processes Associated With Snowbanks (Nivation Processes) 21.10 Cryoplanation or Altiplanation Processes and Their Resultant Landforms 21.11 The Development of Tors 21.12 Slope Processes Associated With the Short Summer Melt Season 21.13 Cambering and Associated Structures 21.14 Wind Action in a Periglacial Climate 21.15 Fluvial Processes in a Periglacial Environment 21.16 Alluvial Fans in a Periglacial Region 21.17 An Overview of the Importance of Periglacial Processes in Shaping the Landscape of Upland Britain 21.18 The Periglaciation of Lowland Britain 22 Aeolian (Wind) Processes and Landform-Sediment Assemblages 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Current Controls on Wind Systems 22.3 Sediment Entrainment and Processes of Sand Movement 22.4 Processes of Wind Transport 22.5 Aeolian Bedforms 22.6 Dune and Aeolian Sediments 22.7 Dust and Loess Deposition 22.8 Wind Erosion Landforms Section V The Biosphere 23 Principles of Ecology and Biogeography 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Why Do Organisms Live Where They Do? 23.3 Components of Ecosystems 23.4 Energy Flow in Ecosystems 23.5 Food Chains and Webs 23.6 Pathways of Mineral Matter (Biogeochemical Cycling) 23.7 Vegetation Succession and Climaxes 23.8 Concluding Remarks 24 Soil-Forming Processes and Products 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Controls on Soil Formation 24.3 Soils As Systems 24.4 Soil Profile Development 24.5 Soil Properties 24.6 Key Soil Types, With a Description and Typical Profile 24.7 Podsolization: Theories 24.8 Soil Classification 24.9 Regional and Local Soil Distribution 24.10 The Development of Dune Soils: An Example from the Sefton Coast 24.11 The Development of Woodland Soils in Delamere Forest 24.12 Intrazonal Soils Caused By Topographic Change 24.13 Palaeosols 25 World Ecosystems 25.1 Introduction 25.2 The Tundra Ecozone 25.3 The Tropical (Equatorial) Rain Forest, Or Humid Tropics Sensu Stricto, Ecozone 25.4 The Seasonal Tropics or Savanna Ecozone 25.5 Potential Effects of Global Warming on the World's Ecozones Section VI Global Environmental Change: Past, Present and Future 26 The Earth As a Planet: Geological Evolution and Change 26.1 Introduction 26.2 How Unique Is the Earth As a Planet? 26.3 What Do We Really Know About The Early Earth? 26.4 The Early Geological Record 26.5 The First Earth System 26.6 How Did the Earth's Core Form? 26.7 Evolution of the Earth's Mantle 26.8 Evolution of the Continental Crust 27 Atmospheric Evolution and Future Climate Change 27.1 Evolution of the Earth's Atmosphere 27.2 Future Climate Change 28 Future Change in Ocean Circulation and the Hydrosphere 28.1 Introduction 28.2 Sea-Level Change and the Supercontinental Cycle 28.3 Projected Long-Term Changes in the Ocean 28.4 Future Changes in the Water Cycle 29 Biosphere Evolution and Change 29.1 Introduction 29.2 Mechanisms of Evolution in the Fossil Record 29.3 The Origins of Life 29.4 An Outline History of the Earth's Biospheric Evolution 30 Environmental Change: Greenhouse and Icehouse Earth Phases and Climates Prior to Recent Changes 30.1 Introduction 30.2 Early Glaciations in the Proterozoic Phase of the Pre-Cambrian (The Snowball Earth Hypothesis) 30.3 Examples of Changes from Greenhouse to Icehouse Climates in the Earth's Past 30.4 Late Cenozoic Ice Ages: Rapid Climate Change in the Quaternary 30.5 Late Glacial Climates and Evidence for Rapid Change 30.6 The Medieval Warm Period or Medieval Climate Optimum and the Little Ice Age 31 Global Environmental Change in the Future 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Future Climate Change 31.3 Change in the Geosphere 31.4 Change in the Oceans and Hydrosphere 31.5 Change in the Biosphere 31.6 A Timeline for Future Earth 31.7 Causes for Future Optimism? 31.8 Concluding Remarks Index