Transformation of Biomass
Theory to Practice
Published on 5. September 2014
Book
Hardback
368 pages
978-1-119-97327-0 (ISBN)
Description
Biomass is a key resource for meeting the energy and material demands of mankind in the future. As a result, businesses and technologies are developing around biomass processing and its applications.
Transformation of Biomass: Theory to Practice explores the modern applications of biomass and bio-based residues for the generation of energy, heat and chemical products. The first chapter presents readers with a broad overview of biomass and its composition, conversion routes and products. The following chapters deal with specific technologies, including anaerobic digestion, pyrolysis and gasification, as well as hydrothermal and supercritical conversion. Each chapter details current practises, recent developments, business case models and comprehensive analysis of the problems associated with each approach, and how to optimize them.
Topics covered include:
Anaerobic digestion
Reactor design
Pyrolysis
Catalysis in biomass transformation
Engines for combined heat and power
Influence of feedstocks on performance and products
Bio-hydrogen from biomass
Analysis of bio-oils
Numerical simulation and formal kinetic parameters evaluation
Business case development
This textbook will provide students, researchers and industry professionals with a practical and accessible guide to the essential skills required to advance in the field of bioenergy.
Transformation of Biomass: Theory to Practice explores the modern applications of biomass and bio-based residues for the generation of energy, heat and chemical products. The first chapter presents readers with a broad overview of biomass and its composition, conversion routes and products. The following chapters deal with specific technologies, including anaerobic digestion, pyrolysis and gasification, as well as hydrothermal and supercritical conversion. Each chapter details current practises, recent developments, business case models and comprehensive analysis of the problems associated with each approach, and how to optimize them.
Topics covered include:
Anaerobic digestion
Reactor design
Pyrolysis
Catalysis in biomass transformation
Engines for combined heat and power
Influence of feedstocks on performance and products
Bio-hydrogen from biomass
Analysis of bio-oils
Numerical simulation and formal kinetic parameters evaluation
Business case development
This textbook will provide students, researchers and industry professionals with a practical and accessible guide to the essential skills required to advance in the field of bioenergy.
More details
Language
English
Place of publication
New York
United States
Target group
Professional and scholarly
Dimensions
Height: 252 mm
Width: 178 mm
Thickness: 23 mm
Weight
721 gr
ISBN-13
978-1-119-97327-0 (9781119973270)
Copyright in bibliographic data and cover images is held by Nielsen Book Services Limited or by the publishers or by their respective licensors: all rights reserved.
Schweitzer Classification
Other editions
Additional editions
E-Book
07/2014
Wiley
€74.99
Available for download
E-Book
07/2014
Wiley
€74.99
Available for download
Person
Professor Andreas Hornung is Head of theChemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry Group at Aston University, Head of the European Bioenergy Research Institute (EBRI) and Director of EBRI UK Ltd.
Professor Hornung studied as an engineer in Chemistry at the Technical University in Darmstadt, Germany followed by a PhD of the Technical University of Kaiserslautern, Germany. After having spent another four years at the Technical University of Karlsruhe he moved into industry, developing the prototypes for his research. He worked in Austria and Italy and in 2001 took on the position as head of the pyrolysis/gas treatment division at the Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe in Germany. In 2007 he moved to Aston University, UK.
Professor Hornung's group researches advanced pyrolysis/gasification and pyrolysis/combustion systems for combined heat and power production. The European Bioenergy Research Institute is based at Aston University, and is a unique platform for the development and implementation of bioenergy systems in local, national and European contexts as well as reaching for International community.
Professor Hornung studied as an engineer in Chemistry at the Technical University in Darmstadt, Germany followed by a PhD of the Technical University of Kaiserslautern, Germany. After having spent another four years at the Technical University of Karlsruhe he moved into industry, developing the prototypes for his research. He worked in Austria and Italy and in 2001 took on the position as head of the pyrolysis/gas treatment division at the Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe in Germany. In 2007 he moved to Aston University, UK.
Professor Hornung's group researches advanced pyrolysis/gasification and pyrolysis/combustion systems for combined heat and power production. The European Bioenergy Research Institute is based at Aston University, and is a unique platform for the development and implementation of bioenergy systems in local, national and European contexts as well as reaching for International community.
Content
About the Editor xiii
List of Contributors xv
Preface xvii
1 Biomass, Conversion Routes and Products - An Overview 1
K.K. Pant and Pravakar Mohanty
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Features of the Different Generations of Biomass 2
1.3 Analysis of Biomass 5
1.3.1 Proximate and Ultimate Analysis of Biomass 6
1.3.2 Inorganic Minerals' Ash Content and Properties 8
1.4 Biomass Conversion Routes 9
1.4.1 Pyrolysis 9
1.5 Bio-Oil Characteristics and Biochar 15
1.6 Scope of Pyrolysis Process Control and Yield Ranges 16
1.6.1 Moisture Content 18
1.6.2 Feed Particle Size 18
1.6.3 Effect of Temperature on Product Distribution 18
1.6.4 Solid Residence Time 18
1.6.5 Gas Environment 18
1.6.6 Effect of Pressure on Product Distribution 19
1.7 Catalytic Bio-Oil Upgradation 19
1.8 Bio-Oil Reforming 22
1.9 Sub and Supercritical Water Hydrolysis and Gasification 23
1.9.1 Biochemical Conversion Routes 24
1.9.2 Microorganisms for Fermentation 25
1.9.3 Integrating the Bioprocess 25
Questions 25
References 28
2 Anaerobic Digestion 31
Lynsey Melville, Andreas Weger, Sonja Wiesgickl and Matthias Franke
2.1 Introduction 31
2.1.1 Microbiology of Anaerobic Digestion 31
2.1.2 Key Phases 32
2.1.3 Influence Factors on the AD 34
2.1.4 Sources of Biomass Utilised in AD 36
2.1.5 Characteristics of Biomass 39
2.1.6 Pre-Treatment of Biomass 41
2.1.7 Products of Anaerobic Digestion 45
2.1.8 Anaerobic Treatment Technology 48
Questions 54
References 54
3 Reactor Design and Its Impact on Performance and Products 61
Yassir T. Makkawi
3.1 Introduction 61
3.2 Thermochemical Conversion Reactors 62
3.2.1 Types of Reactors 62
3.3 Design Considerations 63
3.3.1 Hydrodynamics 64
3.3.2 Residence Time 69
3.3.3 Distributor Plate and Cyclone 72
3.3.4 Heat Transfer Mechanisms 73
3.3.5 Biomass Conversion Efficiency 75
3.4 Reactions and their Impact on the Products 76
3.4.1 Devolatization and Pyrolysis 76
3.4.2 Gasification 77
3.5 Mass and Energy Balance 79
3.5.1 Mass Balance 79
3.5.2 Energy Balance 80
3.6 Reactor Sizing and Configuration 82
3.7 Reactor Performance and Products 85
3.7.1 Moving Beds 85
3.7.2 Fluidized Bed (FB) 87
3.8 New Reactor Design and Performance 92
Nomenclature 94
Greek Symbols 95
Questions 95
References 95
4 Pyrolysis 99
Andreas Hornung
4.1 Introduction 100
4.2 How Pyrolysis Reactors Differ 101
4.3 Fast Pyrolysis 102
4.4 Fast Pyrolysis Reactors 102
4.4.1 Bubbling Fluid Bed Reactor 102
4.4.2 Circulating Fluid Bed Reactor 102
4.4.3 Ablative Pyrolysis Reactor 102
4.4.4 Twin Screw Reactor - Mechanical Fluidised Bed 103
4.4.5 Rotating Cone 103
4.5 Intermediate Pyrolysis 103
4.5.1 Principles 103
4.5.2 Process Technology 104
4.6 Slow Pyrolysis 105
4.6.1 Principles 106
4.6.2 Process Technology 106
4.7 Comparison of Different Pyrolysis Techniques 106
4.8 Future Directions 107
4.9 Pyrolysis in Application 107
4.9.1 Haloclean Pyrolysis and Gasification of Straw 107
4.10 Pyrolysis of Low Grade Biomass Using the Pyroformer Technology 109
Questions 110
References 110
Books and Reviews 112
5 Catalysis in Biomass Transformation 113
James O. Titiloye
5.1 Introduction 113
5.2 Biomass, Biofuels and Catalysis 114
5.3 Biomass Transformation Examples 116
5.4 Hydrogen Production 120
5.5 Catalytic Barriers and Challenges in Transformation 120
Questions 120
References 120
Appendix 5.A Catalytic Reforming of Brewers Spent Grain 125
Asad Mahmood and Andreas Hornung
5.A.1 Biomass Characterisation 125
5.A.2 Permanent Gas Analysis 127
5.A.3 Pyrolysis and Catalytic Reforming without Steam 127
5.A.4 Pyrolysis and Catalytic Reforming with Steam 130
Reference 131
6 Thermochemical Conversion of Biomass 133
S. Dasappa
6.1 Introduction 133
6.2 The Thermochemical Conversion Process 136
6.2.1 Pyrolysis 136
6.3 Combustion 139
6.4 Gasification 140
6.4.1 Updraft or Counter-Current Gasifier 141
6.4.2 Downdraft or Co-Current Gasifiers 142
6.5 Historical Perspective on Gasification Technology 143
6.5.1 Pre-1980 143
6.5.2 Post-1980 144
6.6 Gasification Technology 145
6.6.1 Principles of Reactor Design 145
6.6.2 Two Competing Designs 146
6.7 Open-Top Dual Air Entry Reaction Design - the IISc's Invention 149
6.8 Technology Package 151
6.8.1 Typical Performance of a Power Generation Package 151
6.8.2 Engine and Generator Performance 155
Questions 156
References 157
7 Engines for Combined Heat and Power 159
Miloud Ouadi, Yang Yang and Andreas Hornung
7.1 Spark-Ignited Gas Engines and Syngas 159
7.2 Dual-Fuel Engines and Biofuels 160
7.3 Advanced Systems: Biowaste Derived Pyrolysis Oils for Diesel Engine Application 161
7.3.1 Important Parameters to Qualify the Oil as Fuel 162
7.4 Advanced CHP Application: Dual-Fuel Engine Application for CHP Using Pyrolysis Oil and Pyrolysis Gas from Deinking-Sludge 166
7.4.1 Fuel Properties: Deinking Sludge Pyrolysis Oil, Biodiesel, Blends and Fossil Diesel 167
7.4.2 Combustion Characteristics 169
7.4.3 Conclusions 170
Questions 171
References 171
8 Hydrothermal Liquefaction - Upgrading 175
Ursel Hornung, Andrea Kruse and Goekecn Akguel
8.1 Introduction 175
8.1.1 Product Properties 176
8.2 Chemistry of Hydrothermal Liquefaction 177
8.3 Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Carbohydrates 177
8.4 Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Lignin 179
8.5 Technical Application 182
8.6 Conclusion 183
Questions 183
References 183
9 Supercritical Conversion of Biomass 189
Goekcen Akguel
9.1 Introduction 189
9.2 Supercritical Water Gasification 190
9.3 Supercritical Water Oxidation 193
9.4 Water-Gas Shift Reaction under the Supercritical Conditions 193
9.5 Catalysts in the Supercritical Processes 194
9.5.1 Alkali Salts in the Supercritical Water 195
9.6 The Solubilities of Gases in the Supercritical Water 195
9.7 Fugacities of Gases in the Supercritical Water 196
9.8 Mechanism of the Supercritical Water Gasification 197
9.9 Corrosion in the Supercritical Water 197
9.10 Advantages of the Supercritical Conversion of Biomass 198
9.11 Conclusion 199
Questions 199
References 199
10 Influence of Feedstocks on Performance and Products of Processes 203
Andreas Hornung
10.1 Humidity of Feedstocks 206
10.2 Heteroatoms in Feedstocks 206
References 207
11 Integrated Processes Including Intermediate Pyrolysis 209
Andreas Hornung
11.1 Coupling of Anaerobic Digestion, Pyrolysis and Gasification 210
11.2 Intermediate Pyrolysis, CHP in Combination with Combustion 211
11.3 Integration of Intermediate Pyrolysis with Anaerobic Digestion and CHP 212
11.4 Pyrolysis Reforming 212
11.5 The BIOBATTERY 212
11.6 Pyrolysis BAF Application 214
11.7 Birmingham 2026 215
11.8 Conclusion 215
References 216
12 Bio-Hydrogen from Biomass 217
Andreas Hornung
12.1 World Hydrogen Production 217
12.2 Bio-hydrogen 217
12.3 Routes to Hydrogen 219
12.3.1 Steam Reforming 219
12.3.2 Reforming 219
12.3.3 Water Electrolysis 223
12.3.4 Gasification 223
12.3.5 Fermentation 223
12.4 Costs of Hydrogen 223
12.5 Conclusion 224
References 224
Further Reading 225
13 Analysis of Bio-Oils 227
Dietrich Meier and Michael Windt
13.1 Definition 227
13.2 Introduction 227
13.3 General Aspects 228
13.3.1 Before Analysis 228
13.3.2 Significance of Bio-Oil Analysis 228
13.3.3 Post-Processing Reactions 229
13.3.4 Overall Composition 229
13.4 Whole Oil Analyses 230
13.4.1 Gas Chromatography 230
13.4.2 NMR 237
13.4.3 FTIR 238
13.4.4 SEC 239
13.5 Fractionation Techniques 241
13.5.1 Addition of Water 241
13.5.2 Removal of Water (Lyophilization) 243
13.5.3 Solid Phase Extraction (SPE) 246
13.5.4 Solvent Partition 249
13.5.5 Distillation 253
Questions 254
References 254
14 Formal Kinetic Parameters - Problems and Solutions in Deriving Proper Values 257
Neeranuch Phusunti and Andreas Hornung
14.1 Introduction 257
14.2 Chemical Kinetics on Thermal Decomposition of Biomass 259
14.3 Kinetic Evaluation Methods 261
14.4 Experimental Kinetic Analysis Techniques 264
14.5 Complex Reaction 264
14.6 Variation in Kinetic Parameters 267
14.6.1 Kinetic Compensation Effect 267
14.6.2 Thermal Lag 268
14.6.3 Influence of Experimental Conditions 269
14.6.4 Computational Methods 270
14.7 Case Study: Kinetic Analysis of Lignocellulosic Derived Materials under Isothermal Conditions 271
14.7.1 Instrument and Operating Conditions 271
14.7.2 Kinetic Evaluation Procedure 272
14.7.3 Formal Kinetic Parameters and Some Technical Applications 275
14.8 Conclusion 278
Nomenclature 279
Subscripts 280
Miscellaneous 280
Questions 280
References 280
15 Numerical Simulation of the Thermal Degradation of Biomass -Approaches and Simplifications 285
Istvan Marsi
15.1 Introduction 285
15.2 Kinetic Schemes Applied in Complex Models 288
15.2.1 One-Step Global Models 289
15.2.2 Competing Models 289
15.2.3 Parallel Reaction Models 290
15.2.4 The Broido-Shafizadeh Mechanism 291
15.2.5 The Koufopanos Mechanism 292
15.2.6 The Distributed Activation Energy Model (DAEM) 293
15.3 Thermal Aspects of Biomass Degradation Modeling 294
15.3.1 Single-Particle Models 295
15.3.2 Particles in Bed Models 298
15.4 Conclusion 299
Questions 299
Nomenclature 299
Symbols 299
Greek 300
Indices 300
References 300
16 Business Case Development 305
Sudhakar Sagi
16.1 Introduction 305
16.2 Biomass for Power Generation and CHP 307
16.3 Business Perspective 308
16.3.1 Background 310
16.4 The Role of Business Models 310
16.4.1 The Market Map Framework 311
16.5 Financial Model Based on Intermediate Pyrolysis Technology 313
16.5.1 Pelletisation Process 314
16.5.2 Pyrolysis Unit 315
References 318
17 Production of Biochar and Activated Carbon via Intermediate Pyrolysis - Recent Studies for Non-Woody Biomass 321
Andreas Hornung and Elisabeth Schroeder
17.1 Biochar 321
17.1.1 Introduction 321
17.1.2 Biochar and its Application in the Field 322
References 325
Further Reading 326
17.2 Activated Carbon 327
17.2.1 Introduction 327
17.2.2 Biomass Properties 327
17.2.3 Activation of Biochar 328
17.2.4 Formation of Granular Activated Carbon 334
References 337
Further Reading 337
Index 339
List of Contributors xv
Preface xvii
1 Biomass, Conversion Routes and Products - An Overview 1
K.K. Pant and Pravakar Mohanty
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Features of the Different Generations of Biomass 2
1.3 Analysis of Biomass 5
1.3.1 Proximate and Ultimate Analysis of Biomass 6
1.3.2 Inorganic Minerals' Ash Content and Properties 8
1.4 Biomass Conversion Routes 9
1.4.1 Pyrolysis 9
1.5 Bio-Oil Characteristics and Biochar 15
1.6 Scope of Pyrolysis Process Control and Yield Ranges 16
1.6.1 Moisture Content 18
1.6.2 Feed Particle Size 18
1.6.3 Effect of Temperature on Product Distribution 18
1.6.4 Solid Residence Time 18
1.6.5 Gas Environment 18
1.6.6 Effect of Pressure on Product Distribution 19
1.7 Catalytic Bio-Oil Upgradation 19
1.8 Bio-Oil Reforming 22
1.9 Sub and Supercritical Water Hydrolysis and Gasification 23
1.9.1 Biochemical Conversion Routes 24
1.9.2 Microorganisms for Fermentation 25
1.9.3 Integrating the Bioprocess 25
Questions 25
References 28
2 Anaerobic Digestion 31
Lynsey Melville, Andreas Weger, Sonja Wiesgickl and Matthias Franke
2.1 Introduction 31
2.1.1 Microbiology of Anaerobic Digestion 31
2.1.2 Key Phases 32
2.1.3 Influence Factors on the AD 34
2.1.4 Sources of Biomass Utilised in AD 36
2.1.5 Characteristics of Biomass 39
2.1.6 Pre-Treatment of Biomass 41
2.1.7 Products of Anaerobic Digestion 45
2.1.8 Anaerobic Treatment Technology 48
Questions 54
References 54
3 Reactor Design and Its Impact on Performance and Products 61
Yassir T. Makkawi
3.1 Introduction 61
3.2 Thermochemical Conversion Reactors 62
3.2.1 Types of Reactors 62
3.3 Design Considerations 63
3.3.1 Hydrodynamics 64
3.3.2 Residence Time 69
3.3.3 Distributor Plate and Cyclone 72
3.3.4 Heat Transfer Mechanisms 73
3.3.5 Biomass Conversion Efficiency 75
3.4 Reactions and their Impact on the Products 76
3.4.1 Devolatization and Pyrolysis 76
3.4.2 Gasification 77
3.5 Mass and Energy Balance 79
3.5.1 Mass Balance 79
3.5.2 Energy Balance 80
3.6 Reactor Sizing and Configuration 82
3.7 Reactor Performance and Products 85
3.7.1 Moving Beds 85
3.7.2 Fluidized Bed (FB) 87
3.8 New Reactor Design and Performance 92
Nomenclature 94
Greek Symbols 95
Questions 95
References 95
4 Pyrolysis 99
Andreas Hornung
4.1 Introduction 100
4.2 How Pyrolysis Reactors Differ 101
4.3 Fast Pyrolysis 102
4.4 Fast Pyrolysis Reactors 102
4.4.1 Bubbling Fluid Bed Reactor 102
4.4.2 Circulating Fluid Bed Reactor 102
4.4.3 Ablative Pyrolysis Reactor 102
4.4.4 Twin Screw Reactor - Mechanical Fluidised Bed 103
4.4.5 Rotating Cone 103
4.5 Intermediate Pyrolysis 103
4.5.1 Principles 103
4.5.2 Process Technology 104
4.6 Slow Pyrolysis 105
4.6.1 Principles 106
4.6.2 Process Technology 106
4.7 Comparison of Different Pyrolysis Techniques 106
4.8 Future Directions 107
4.9 Pyrolysis in Application 107
4.9.1 Haloclean Pyrolysis and Gasification of Straw 107
4.10 Pyrolysis of Low Grade Biomass Using the Pyroformer Technology 109
Questions 110
References 110
Books and Reviews 112
5 Catalysis in Biomass Transformation 113
James O. Titiloye
5.1 Introduction 113
5.2 Biomass, Biofuels and Catalysis 114
5.3 Biomass Transformation Examples 116
5.4 Hydrogen Production 120
5.5 Catalytic Barriers and Challenges in Transformation 120
Questions 120
References 120
Appendix 5.A Catalytic Reforming of Brewers Spent Grain 125
Asad Mahmood and Andreas Hornung
5.A.1 Biomass Characterisation 125
5.A.2 Permanent Gas Analysis 127
5.A.3 Pyrolysis and Catalytic Reforming without Steam 127
5.A.4 Pyrolysis and Catalytic Reforming with Steam 130
Reference 131
6 Thermochemical Conversion of Biomass 133
S. Dasappa
6.1 Introduction 133
6.2 The Thermochemical Conversion Process 136
6.2.1 Pyrolysis 136
6.3 Combustion 139
6.4 Gasification 140
6.4.1 Updraft or Counter-Current Gasifier 141
6.4.2 Downdraft or Co-Current Gasifiers 142
6.5 Historical Perspective on Gasification Technology 143
6.5.1 Pre-1980 143
6.5.2 Post-1980 144
6.6 Gasification Technology 145
6.6.1 Principles of Reactor Design 145
6.6.2 Two Competing Designs 146
6.7 Open-Top Dual Air Entry Reaction Design - the IISc's Invention 149
6.8 Technology Package 151
6.8.1 Typical Performance of a Power Generation Package 151
6.8.2 Engine and Generator Performance 155
Questions 156
References 157
7 Engines for Combined Heat and Power 159
Miloud Ouadi, Yang Yang and Andreas Hornung
7.1 Spark-Ignited Gas Engines and Syngas 159
7.2 Dual-Fuel Engines and Biofuels 160
7.3 Advanced Systems: Biowaste Derived Pyrolysis Oils for Diesel Engine Application 161
7.3.1 Important Parameters to Qualify the Oil as Fuel 162
7.4 Advanced CHP Application: Dual-Fuel Engine Application for CHP Using Pyrolysis Oil and Pyrolysis Gas from Deinking-Sludge 166
7.4.1 Fuel Properties: Deinking Sludge Pyrolysis Oil, Biodiesel, Blends and Fossil Diesel 167
7.4.2 Combustion Characteristics 169
7.4.3 Conclusions 170
Questions 171
References 171
8 Hydrothermal Liquefaction - Upgrading 175
Ursel Hornung, Andrea Kruse and Goekecn Akguel
8.1 Introduction 175
8.1.1 Product Properties 176
8.2 Chemistry of Hydrothermal Liquefaction 177
8.3 Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Carbohydrates 177
8.4 Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Lignin 179
8.5 Technical Application 182
8.6 Conclusion 183
Questions 183
References 183
9 Supercritical Conversion of Biomass 189
Goekcen Akguel
9.1 Introduction 189
9.2 Supercritical Water Gasification 190
9.3 Supercritical Water Oxidation 193
9.4 Water-Gas Shift Reaction under the Supercritical Conditions 193
9.5 Catalysts in the Supercritical Processes 194
9.5.1 Alkali Salts in the Supercritical Water 195
9.6 The Solubilities of Gases in the Supercritical Water 195
9.7 Fugacities of Gases in the Supercritical Water 196
9.8 Mechanism of the Supercritical Water Gasification 197
9.9 Corrosion in the Supercritical Water 197
9.10 Advantages of the Supercritical Conversion of Biomass 198
9.11 Conclusion 199
Questions 199
References 199
10 Influence of Feedstocks on Performance and Products of Processes 203
Andreas Hornung
10.1 Humidity of Feedstocks 206
10.2 Heteroatoms in Feedstocks 206
References 207
11 Integrated Processes Including Intermediate Pyrolysis 209
Andreas Hornung
11.1 Coupling of Anaerobic Digestion, Pyrolysis and Gasification 210
11.2 Intermediate Pyrolysis, CHP in Combination with Combustion 211
11.3 Integration of Intermediate Pyrolysis with Anaerobic Digestion and CHP 212
11.4 Pyrolysis Reforming 212
11.5 The BIOBATTERY 212
11.6 Pyrolysis BAF Application 214
11.7 Birmingham 2026 215
11.8 Conclusion 215
References 216
12 Bio-Hydrogen from Biomass 217
Andreas Hornung
12.1 World Hydrogen Production 217
12.2 Bio-hydrogen 217
12.3 Routes to Hydrogen 219
12.3.1 Steam Reforming 219
12.3.2 Reforming 219
12.3.3 Water Electrolysis 223
12.3.4 Gasification 223
12.3.5 Fermentation 223
12.4 Costs of Hydrogen 223
12.5 Conclusion 224
References 224
Further Reading 225
13 Analysis of Bio-Oils 227
Dietrich Meier and Michael Windt
13.1 Definition 227
13.2 Introduction 227
13.3 General Aspects 228
13.3.1 Before Analysis 228
13.3.2 Significance of Bio-Oil Analysis 228
13.3.3 Post-Processing Reactions 229
13.3.4 Overall Composition 229
13.4 Whole Oil Analyses 230
13.4.1 Gas Chromatography 230
13.4.2 NMR 237
13.4.3 FTIR 238
13.4.4 SEC 239
13.5 Fractionation Techniques 241
13.5.1 Addition of Water 241
13.5.2 Removal of Water (Lyophilization) 243
13.5.3 Solid Phase Extraction (SPE) 246
13.5.4 Solvent Partition 249
13.5.5 Distillation 253
Questions 254
References 254
14 Formal Kinetic Parameters - Problems and Solutions in Deriving Proper Values 257
Neeranuch Phusunti and Andreas Hornung
14.1 Introduction 257
14.2 Chemical Kinetics on Thermal Decomposition of Biomass 259
14.3 Kinetic Evaluation Methods 261
14.4 Experimental Kinetic Analysis Techniques 264
14.5 Complex Reaction 264
14.6 Variation in Kinetic Parameters 267
14.6.1 Kinetic Compensation Effect 267
14.6.2 Thermal Lag 268
14.6.3 Influence of Experimental Conditions 269
14.6.4 Computational Methods 270
14.7 Case Study: Kinetic Analysis of Lignocellulosic Derived Materials under Isothermal Conditions 271
14.7.1 Instrument and Operating Conditions 271
14.7.2 Kinetic Evaluation Procedure 272
14.7.3 Formal Kinetic Parameters and Some Technical Applications 275
14.8 Conclusion 278
Nomenclature 279
Subscripts 280
Miscellaneous 280
Questions 280
References 280
15 Numerical Simulation of the Thermal Degradation of Biomass -Approaches and Simplifications 285
Istvan Marsi
15.1 Introduction 285
15.2 Kinetic Schemes Applied in Complex Models 288
15.2.1 One-Step Global Models 289
15.2.2 Competing Models 289
15.2.3 Parallel Reaction Models 290
15.2.4 The Broido-Shafizadeh Mechanism 291
15.2.5 The Koufopanos Mechanism 292
15.2.6 The Distributed Activation Energy Model (DAEM) 293
15.3 Thermal Aspects of Biomass Degradation Modeling 294
15.3.1 Single-Particle Models 295
15.3.2 Particles in Bed Models 298
15.4 Conclusion 299
Questions 299
Nomenclature 299
Symbols 299
Greek 300
Indices 300
References 300
16 Business Case Development 305
Sudhakar Sagi
16.1 Introduction 305
16.2 Biomass for Power Generation and CHP 307
16.3 Business Perspective 308
16.3.1 Background 310
16.4 The Role of Business Models 310
16.4.1 The Market Map Framework 311
16.5 Financial Model Based on Intermediate Pyrolysis Technology 313
16.5.1 Pelletisation Process 314
16.5.2 Pyrolysis Unit 315
References 318
17 Production of Biochar and Activated Carbon via Intermediate Pyrolysis - Recent Studies for Non-Woody Biomass 321
Andreas Hornung and Elisabeth Schroeder
17.1 Biochar 321
17.1.1 Introduction 321
17.1.2 Biochar and its Application in the Field 322
References 325
Further Reading 326
17.2 Activated Carbon 327
17.2.1 Introduction 327
17.2.2 Biomass Properties 327
17.2.3 Activation of Biochar 328
17.2.4 Formation of Granular Activated Carbon 334
References 337
Further Reading 337
Index 339