Global Positioning System

1. Introduction.- 1.1 The origins of surveying.- 1.2 Development of global surveying techniques.- 1.2.1 Optical global triangulation.- 1.2.2 Electromagnetic global trilateration.- 1.3 History of the Global Positioning System.- 1.3.1 Navigating with GPS.- 1.3.2 Surveying with GPS.- 2. Overview of GPS.- 2.1 Basic concept.- 2.2 Space segment.- 2.2.1 Constellation.- 2.2.2 Satellites.- 2.2.3 Denial of accuracy and access.- 2.3 Control segment.- 2.3.1 Master control station.- 2.3.2 Monitor stations.- 2.3.3 Ground control stations.- 2.4 User segment.- 2.4.1 User categories.- 2.4.2 Receiver types.- 3. Reference systems.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Coordinate systems.- 3.2.1 Definitions.- 3.2.2 Transformations.- 3.3 Time systems.- 3.3.1 Definitions.- 3.3.2 Conversions.- 3.3.3 Calendar.- 4. Satellite orbits.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Orbit description.- 4.2.1 Keplerian motion.- 4.2.2 Perturbed motion.- 4.2.3 Disturbing accelerations.- 4.3 Orbit determination.- 4.3.1 Keplerian orbit.- 4.3.2 Perturbed orbit.- 4.4 Orbit dissemination.- 4.4.1 Tracking networks.- 4.4.2 Ephemerides.- 5. Satellite signal.- 5.1 Signal structure.- 5.1.1 Physical fundamentals.- 5.1.2 Components of the signal.- 5.2 Signal processing.- 5.2.1 General remarks.- 5.2.2 Receiver.- 6. Observables.- 6.1 Data acquisition.- 6.1.1 Code pseudoranges.- 6.1.2 Phase pseudoranges.- 6.1.3 Doppler data.- 6.1.4 Biases and noise.- 6.2 Data combinations.- 6.2.1 Linear phase combinations.- 6.2.2 Phase and code pseudorange combinations.- 6.3 Atmospheric effects.- 6.3.1 Phase and group velocity.- 6.3.2 Ionospheric refraction.- 6.3.3 Tropospheric refraction.- 6.4 Relativistic effects.- 6.4.1 Special relativity.- 6.4.2 General relativity.- 6.4.3 Relevant relativistic effects for GPS.- 6.5 Multipath.- 6.6 Antenna phase center offset and variation.- 7. Surveying with GPS.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.1.1 Terminology definitions.- 7.1.2 Observation technique.- 7.1.3 Field equipment.- 7.2 Planning a GPS survey.- 7.2.1 General remarks.- 7.2.2 Presurvey planning.- 7.2.3 Field reconnaissance.- 7.2.4 Monumentation.- 7.2.5 Organizational design.- 7.3 Surveying procedure.- 7.3.1 Preobservation.- 7.3.2 Observation.- 7.3.3 Postobservation.- 7.3.4 Ties to control monuments.- 7.4 In situ data processing.- 7.4.1 Data transfer.- 7.4.2 Data processing.- 7.4.3 Trouble shooting and quality control.- 7.4.4 Datum transformations.- 7.4.5 Computation of plane coordinates.- 7.5 Survey report.- 8. Mathematical models for positioning.- 8.1 Point positioning.- 8.1.1 Point positioning with code ranges.- 8.1.2 Point positioning with carrier phases.- 8.1.3 Point positioning with Doppler data.- 8.2 Relative positioning.- 8.2.1 Phase differences.- 8.2.2 Correlations of the phase combinations.- 8.2.3 Static relative positioning.- 8.2.4 Kinematic relative positioning.- 8.2.5 Mixed-mode relative positioning.- 9. Data processing.- 9.1 Data preprocessing.- 9.1.1 Data handling.- 9.1.2 Cycle slip detection and repair.- 9.1.3 Ambiguity resolution.- 9.2 Adjustment, filtering, and smoothing.- 9.2.1 Least squares adjustment.- 9.2.2 Kalman filtering.- 9.2.3 Smoothing.- 9.3 Adjustment of mathematical GPS models.- 9.3.1 Linearization.- 9.3.2 Linear model for point positioning with code ranges.- 9.3.3 Linear model for point positioning with carrier phases.- 9.3.4 Linear model for relative positioning.- 9.4 Network adjustment.- 9.4.1 Single baseline solution.- 9.4.2 Multipoint solution.- 9.4.3 Single baseline versus multipoint solution.- 9.5 Dilution of Precision.- 10. Transformation of GPS results.- 10.1 Introduction.- 10.2 Coordinate transformations.- 10.2.1 Cartesian coordinates and ellipsoidal coordinates.- 10.2.2 Ellipsoidal coordinates and plane coordinates.- 10.2.3 Height transformation.- 10.3 Similarity transformations.- 10.3.1 Three-dimensional transformation.- 10.3.2 Two-dimensional transformation.- 10.3.3 One-dimensional transformation.- 10.4 Combining GPS and terrestrial data.- 10.4.1 Data transformation.- 10.4.2 Adjustment.- 10.5 Fiducial point concept.- 11. Software modules.- 11.1 Introduction.- 11.2 Planning.- 11.2.1 Satellite visibility.- 11.2.2 Satellite geometry.- 11.2.3 Simulations.- 11.2.4 Receiver preprogramming.- 11.3 Data transfer.- 11.3.1 Downloading data.- 11.3.2 Decoding data.- 11.3.3 Checking transferred data.- 11.3.4 File handling.- 11.3.5 Baseline definition.- 11.4 Data processing.- 11.4.1 Generating RINEX formatted data.- 11.4.2 Ephemerides.- 11.4.3 Code data processing.- 11.4.4 Phase data processing.- 11.4.5 Data analysis.- 11.4.6 Covariance matrices.- 11.4.7 Modeling the atmosphere.- 11.4.8 Parameter estimation.- 11.5 Quality control.- 11.5.1 Statistical data.- 11.5.2 Loop closures.- 11.5.3 Residuals.- 11.5.4 Repaired cycle slips.- 11.6 Network adjustment.- 11.6.1 Helmert transformation.- 11.6.2 Hybrid data combination.- 11.7 Data base management.- 11.7.1 Storage and retrieval of data.- 11.7.2 Archiving survey results.- 11.7.3 Interface to national control points.- 11.7.4 Interface to GIS software.- 11.8 Utilities.- 11.8.1 File editing.- 11.8.2 Time conversions.- 11.8.3 Optimization of survey design.- 11.8.4 Transformation of coordinates.- 11.8.5 Documentation of results.- 11.9 Flexibility.- 11.10 Checklist for software modules.- 12. Applications of GPS.- 12.1 General uses of GPS.- 12.1.1 Global uses.- 12.1.2 Regional uses.- 12.1.3 Local uses.- 12.2 Installation of control networks.- 12.2.1 Passive control networks.- 12.2.2 Active control networks.- 12.3 Interoperability of GPS.- 12.3.1 GPS and Inertial Navigation Systems.- 12.3.2 GPS and GLONASS.- 12.3.3 GPS and other sensors.- 12.3.4 GPS and terrestrial survey.- 13. Future of GPS.- 13.1 New application aspects.- 13.2 Impact of limited accuracy and access.- 13.2.1 Selective availability.- 13.2.2 Anti-spoofing.- 13.3 Improved constellation.- 13.3.1 Next generation satellites.- 13.3.2 GLONASS satellites.- 13.3.3 INMARSAT satellites.- 13.4 Hardware improvements.- 13.4.1 Receiver cost.- 13.4.2 Receiver capability.- 13.5 Software improvements.- 13.6 Conclusion.- References.