Large Rivers
Geomorphology and Management
Published on 4. January 2008
Book
Hardback
712 pages
978-0-470-84987-3 (ISBN)
Description
Large Rivers: Geomorphology and Management explores an important topic in geomorphology and sedimentology: the form and function of major rivers. Our knowledge of the big rivers of the world is limited. It is currently difficult to recognise large rivers of the past from relict sedimentary deposits or to structure management policies for long international rivers. This exciting book brings together a set of papers on large rivers of the world, as a unique introduction to a demanding subject. The book includes thirty chapters and is organised into three sections. The first part is on the environmental requirements for creating and maintaining a major river system. The second is a collection of case studies on 14 large rivers from different continents, covering a range of physical environments. The third section includes chapters on the measurement and management of large rivers.
First book to offer in a single volume state-of-the-art knowledge on management and geomorphology of large rivers of the world
A pioneering study, pushing the boundaries of our knowledge related to big rivers
Includes comprehensive case studies covering the major large rivers of the world including Amazon, Mississippi, Nile, Congo, Indus, and Mekong
Written by a leading team of distinguished, international contributors
Large Rivers: Geomorphology and Management is essential reading for postgraduate students and researchers in fluvial geomorphology, hydrology, sedimentary geology, and river management. It is also of relevance to engineers and environmental consultants in the private and public sectors working on major rivers of the world.
First book to offer in a single volume state-of-the-art knowledge on management and geomorphology of large rivers of the world
A pioneering study, pushing the boundaries of our knowledge related to big rivers
Includes comprehensive case studies covering the major large rivers of the world including Amazon, Mississippi, Nile, Congo, Indus, and Mekong
Written by a leading team of distinguished, international contributors
Large Rivers: Geomorphology and Management is essential reading for postgraduate students and researchers in fluvial geomorphology, hydrology, sedimentary geology, and river management. It is also of relevance to engineers and environmental consultants in the private and public sectors working on major rivers of the world.
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Language
English
Place of publication
New York
United States
Target group
Professional and scholarly
Dimensions
Height: 249 mm
Width: 196 mm
Thickness: 48 mm
Weight
1565 gr
ISBN-13
978-0-470-84987-3 (9780470849873)
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Available for download
Person
Avijit Gupta, School of Geography, University of Leeds, UK, and Visiting Scientist, Centre for Remote Imaging, Sensing and Processing, National University of Singapore.
Content
Preface xvii
List of Contributors xix
1 Introduction 1
Avijit Gupta
1.1 A Book on Large Rivers 1
1.2 What is a Large River? 2
1.3 The Book and its Content 2
References 4
Part I: Background
2 Geology of Large River Systems 7
Sampat K. Tandon and Rajiv Sinha
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Tectonic Settings of Large River Systems 8
2.2.1 Rivers in Continental Collision Belts 9
2.2.2 Rivers in Rift Settings 10
2.2.3 Rivers in Cratonic Settings 10
2.3 Complexity of Drainage Types 11
2.4 Large Rivers - Climatic Settings and Climatic Variability 13
2.5 Modern Large Rivers - Hydrology and Sediment Dispersal 15
2.6 Variability in the Alluvial Architecture of Large River Systems 17
2.6.1 Longitudinal Trunk Systems 18
2.6.2 Radial Fans 20
2.6.3 Fan-Interfan Setting 20
2.6.4 Interfluves 20
2.7 Growth and Development of Large River Systems 21
2.8 Duration of Large River Systems and the Rock Record 22
2.9 Sea Level, Tectonic and Climatic Controls on the Large River Systems 22
2.10 Concluding Remarks 24
Acknowledgements 25
References 25
3 Hydrology and Discharge 29
Ellen E. Wohl
3.1 Hydrology of Large River Basins 29
3.2 Large Rivers of the Equatorial Regions 32
3.2.1 Amazon River 32
3.2.2 Congo River 35
3.2.3 Zambezi River 35
3.3 Large Rivers of the Drylands 35
3.3.1 Nile River 35
3.3.2 Indus River 36
3.3.3 Colorado River 36
3.3.4 Murray-Darling River 36
3.4 Rivers of the Mid-latitudes 37
3.4.1 Mississippi River 37
3.4.2 Danube River 37
3.5 Rivers Draining South from the Himalaya 37
3.5.1 Ganga River 38
3.5.2 Brahmaputra River 38
3.6 Rivers of East and Southeast Asia 38
3.6.1 Huanghe 38
3.6.2 Changjiang 39
3.6.3 Mekong River 39
3.7 High-latitude Rivers 39
3.7.1 Ob, Yenisey and Lena Rivers 40
3.7.2 Mackenzie and Yukon Rivers 40
3.8 Summary 40
Acknowledgements 41
References 41
4 Transcontinental Moving and Storage: The Orinoco and Amazon Rivers Transfer the Andes to the Atlantic 45
Robert H. Meade
4.1 Introduction 45
4.2 Andean Sources and Alluvial Storage 45
4.3 Orinoco 47
4.4 Amazon 49
4.4.1 Setting 49
4.4.2 Storage and Remobilization of Floodplain Sediment 52
4.4.3 Sediment Storage in the Lowermost Amazon Valley 57
4.5 The Amazon Goes to Sea 57
4.6 Coda 59
Acknowledgements 60
References 60
5 Greatest Floods and Largest Rivers 65
Victor R. Baker
5.1 Introduction 65
5.2 Historical Background 65
5.3 Terrestrial Glacial Megafloods 66
5.3.1 Cordilleran Ice Sheet 66
5.3.2 Laurentide Ice Sheet 66
5.3.3 Eurasian Ice Sheets 68
5.3.4 Central Asian Mountains 70
5.4 Extraterrestrial Megafloods and Megarivers 71
5.5 Conclusion 72
References 72
6 Classification, Architecture, and Evolution of Large-River Deltas 75
Kazuaki Hori and Yoshiki Saito
6.1 Introduction 75
6.2 Definition of a Delta and Delta Components 77
6.3 Classification of Deltas 79
6.4 Morphology and Sediment 82
6.4.1 Morphology 82
6.4.2 Sediments and Sediment Facies 85
6.4.3 Sediment Accumulation Rates 86
6.5 Delta Evolution 87
6.5.1 Response to Holocene Sea-Level Change 87
6.5.2 Changes in the Course of a River Channel and of its Distributaries 88
6.5.3 Coastal Environment Change Related to Delta Progradation 90
6.6 Problems of Sediment Supply 90
6.6.1 Estimation of Past Sediment Discharge 90
6.6.2 Sediment Budgets in Deltas and Sediment Supply to the Oceans 91
6.7 Concluding Remarks 91
Acknowledgements 92
References 92
7 Sedimentology and Stratigraphy of Large River Deposits: Recognition in the Ancient Record, and Distinction from 'Incised Valley Fills' 97
Christopher R. Fielding
7.1 Introduction 97
7.2 Sedimentology and Stratigraphy of Modern Big Rivers 100
7.3 Sedimentology and Stratigraphy of Ancient Big Rivers 103
7.4 Discussion: Ancient Big River Deposits vs 'Incised Valley Fills' 105
7.5 Conclusion 107
Acknowledgements 108
References 108
Part II: Case Studies
8 Effects of Tectonism, Climate Change, and Sea-level Change on the Form and Behaviour of the Modern Amazon River and its Floodplain 115
Leal A.K. Mertes and Thomas Dunne
8.1 Background 115
8.2 Amazon Basin Characteristics 116
8.3 Lithologic and Tectonic Influences on the Modern Amazon 117
8.3.1 First-Order Basin-Scale Influences 117
8.3.2 Second-Order Transverse Structures 121
8.3.3 Fracture Patterns 121
8.3.4 Structural Influences on Amazon River Geomorphology 125
8.4 Influence of Climate Change on the Amazon River 132
8.5 Influence of Sea-Level Changes on the Amazon River and Floodplain 135
8.6 Conclusion 139
Acknowledgements 140
References 140
9 The Mississippi River System 145
James C. Knox
9.1 Introduction 145
9.2 Cenozoic Drainage Evolution 145
9.3 Influence of Quaternary Glaciations 148
9.4 Proglacial Lakes and Extreme Floods 150
9.5 Response of the Lower Mississippi Valley to Upper Valley Glaciation and Flooding 151
9.6 The Mississippi River System during the Holocene 153
9.6.1 Climate and Vegetation Changes 153
9.6.2 Holocene Alluvial Episodes 156
9.6.3 Holocene Flood Episodes in the Upper Mississippi Valley 156
9.6.4 Lower Valley Alluvial Responses to Upper Valley Holocene Environmental Change 160
9.7 Morphology of the Mississippi River 162
9.7.1 Upper Mississippi River 162
9.7.2 Lower Mississippi River 165
9.8 Modern Hydrology 167
9.8.1 Climate, Runoff, and Floods 167
9.8.2 Dams: Flow Modification and Sediment Storage 171
9.9 The Mississippi River System: Summary and Outlook 174
Acknowledgments 177
References 177
10 The Colorado River 183
John C. Schmidt
10.1 Introduction 183
10.2 Physiography 186
10.2.1 Description of the Green and Colorado Rivers, from Headwaters to the Sea 187
10.3 Age of the River 189
10.4 Gradient, Valley Width, and Channel Form in the Colorado Plateau 191
10.5 Hydrology: Pre-dam 193
10.6 Hydrology: Post-dam 196
10.6.1 Upper Basin 197
10.6.2 Lower Basin 198
10.7 Pre-Dam and Post-Dam Sediment Yield and Sediment Transport 200
10.8 Channel Adjustment and Change During the Twentieth Century 203
10.8.1 The Delta 204
10.8.2 The Imperial Valley and Salton Sea 206
10.8.3 The Lower River 208
10.8.4 The River System within the Colorado Plateau 209
10.9 Implications of Hydrology, Sediment Transport, Channel Change, and Temperature to the Endemic Fishery 211
10.10 Environmental Management of the Modern River 215
10.10.1 The Glen Canyon Dam Adaptive Management Program 215
10.10.2 Opportunities for Recovery of the Delta Ecosystem 217
10.11 The Future 217
10.11.1 The Delta and Lower River 217
10.11.2 The Grand Canyon Ecosystem 217
10.11.3 The Upper Basin 219
10.12 Conclusion 219
References 219
11 The Lena River: Hydromorphodynamic Features in a Deep Permafrost Zone 225
Francois Costard and Emmanuele Gautier
11.1 Introduction 225
11.2 Description of the Lena Drainage Basin 225
11.3 A Periglacial Environment 227
11.4 Floodplain, Delta and Periglacial Landforms 227
11.5 Fluvial Dynamics and Landforms 227
11.6 Thermal Erosion and its Impact on the Fluvial Forms 231
11.7 Impact of Climatic Change on the Hydrosystem 232
11.8 Conclusion 232
References 232
12 The Danube: Morphology, Evolution and Environmental Issues 235
Denes Loczy
12.1 Introduction 235
12.2 Water and Sediment 235
12.3 Headwaters of the Danube 238
12.4 The Danube: a Description 239
12.4.1 The Upper Danube in Germany and Austria 239
12.4.2 The Middle Danube (Slovakia, Hungary and Serbia) 241
12.4.3 The Lower Danube (Romania, Bulgaria and Ukraine) 242
12.5 The Danube Delta 242
12.5.1 Delta Habitats and Environmental Problems 243
12.6 The Evolution of the Valley of the Danube 245
12.6.1 The Upper Section 245
12.6.2 The Middle Section 251
12.6.3 The Lower Section 253
12.6.4 The Delta 254
12.7 Human Impacts 254
12.7.1 A Brief History of Channelization 254
12.7.2 The Rhine-Main-Danube Canal 256
12.7.3 A Recent Example of Damming the Danube: the Gabcikovo Barrage in Slovakia 256
12.7.4 Pollution 256
12.7.5 How Much is the Danube Worth? 257
References 257
13 The Nile: Evolution, Quaternary River Environments and Material Fluxes 261
Jamie C. Woodward, Mark G. Macklin, Michael D. Krom and Martin A. J. Williams
13.1 Introduction 261
13.2 Nile Basin River Environments 263
13.3 Early Origins and the Late Miocene and Pliocene Nile 265
13.3.1 The Late Miocene Nile Canyon in Egypt 265
13.3.2 The Integrated Nile 267
13.4 The Late Pleistocene and Holocene Nile 268
13.4.1 20 000 to 12 500 14 C Years BP 268
13.4.2 12 500 to 5000 14 C Years BP 270
13.4.3 5000 14 C Years BP to Present 272
13.5 Records of Nile River Behaviour in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea 273
13.6 The Modern Nile: Hydrology and Geomorphology 274
13.6.1 The White Nile Basin 274
13.6.2 The Blue Nile and Atbara Basins 277
13.6.3 The Confluence Zone and the Desert Nile from Khartoum to the Mediterranean 278
13.7 The Suspended Sediment Budget 279
13.7.1 Reservoir Sedimentation 281
13.7.2 Suspended Sediment Dynamics Downstream of the Aswan High Dam 283
13.8 The Nile Delta and the Eastern Mediterranean 284
13.8.1 The Delta and Coastal Zone 284
13.8.2 Sediment Supply to the Eastern Mediterranean Sea 284
13.9 River Basin Management and Global Change 287
Acknowledgements 289
References 289
14 The Congo River, Central Africa 293
Juergen Runge
14.1 Introduction 293
14.2 The Course of the Congo River 293
14.3 Geology and Geomorphology of the Congo Basin 299
14.3.1 The Central Congo Basin 299
14.3.2 The Asande Rise 301
14.3.3 The Atlantic Rise 301
14.3.4 The Angolan and Shaba Highland 302
14.3.5 The Western Rift Rise 302
14.4 Evolution of the Congo River 302
14.5 The Flow Regime of the Congo 303
14.6 Solid, Suspended, and Dissolved Load 303
14.7 The Congo Mouth and the Submarine Canyon 306
14.8 The Congo River and its Economic Importance 307
14.9 Conclusion 308
Acknowledgements 308
References 308
15 The Zambezi River 311
Andy E. Moore, Fenton P.D. (Woody) Cotterill, Mike P.L. Main and Hugh B. Williams
15.1 Introduction 311
15.2 The Zambezi River System 313
15.3 Hydrology 317
15.4 Ecological Impact of Major Dams 320
15.5 Evolution of the Zambezi River System 321
15.6 Drainage Evolution and Speciation 328
15.7 Cultural and Economic Aspects 330
15.8 Conclusion 330
Acknowledgements 331
References 331
16 The Geographic, Geological and Oceanographic Setting of the Indus River 333
Asif Inam, Peter D. Clift, Liviu Giosan, Ali Rashid Tabrez, Muhammad Tahir, Muhammad Moazam Rabbani and Muhammad Danish
16.1 Introduction 333
16.2 The Drainage Basin 334
16.2.1 Geology 334
16.2.2 Hydrology 334
16.3 The River 335
16.4 Evolution of the Indus River 335
16.5 The Indus Delta 336
16.6 Submarine Indus System 338
16.7 Water Management 339
16.8 The Indus Dolphins 341
16.9 Environmental Changes 342
16.10 Human-Induced Changes in the Indus Delta 342
16.11 Conclusion 344
References 345
17 The Ganga River 347
Indra B. Singh
17.1 Introduction 347
17.2 Hydrology 347
17.3 Water Quality 353
17.4 Sediment Transfer in the Ganga 353
17.4.1 Dissolved Load 353
17.4.2 Suspended Load and Bed Load 353
17.5 Mineralogy and Geochemistry of Sediments 355
17.6 Heavy Metals and Pollutants in the Sediment 356
17.7 The Plain and the River 356
17.8 The Delta 362
17.9 A Summary of Current Geomorphic Processes 365
17.10 Quaternary Evolution of the Ganga 366
17.11 Utilization of the River and Associated Problems 367
Acknowledgements 368
References 368
18 Erosion and Weathering in the Brahmaputra River System 373
Sunil K. Singh
18.1 Introduction 373
18.2 The Brahmaputra River System 373
18.3 Geology of the Basin 375
18.4 Hydrology 377
18.5 Floods in the Brahmaputra 378
18.6 Characteristics of the Brahmaputra Channel 381
18.7 Erosion and Weathering 382
18.8 Sediment Yield or Erosion Rates in the Various Zones 386
18.9 Chemical Weathering and Erosion 386
18.9.1 Water Chemistry 387
18.9.2 Silicate Weathering 388
18.10 Bed Load and Weathering Intensity 389
18.11 Control of Physical and Chemical Erosion in the Brahmaputra Basin 389
18.12 Conclusion 391
References 391
19 The Brahmaputra-Jamuna River, Bangladesh 395
James L. Best, Philip J. Ashworth, Maminul H. Sarker and Julie E. Roden
19.1 Background 395
19.1.1 The River 395
19.1.2 Basinal Setting and Controls on Sedimentation 397
19.1.3 Hydrology, Sediment Yield and Channel Size 398
19.2 Channel Scale Morphology and Historical Changes in the Course of the Brahmaputra-Jamuna River 399
19.3 Bedform Types and Dynamics 405
19.3.1 Small-Scale Bedforms (ripples, dunes and upper-stage plane beds) 405
19.3.2 Large-Scale Bedforms (bars and bar complexes) 407
19.4 Bifurcations, Offtakes and Confluences 413
19.5 Floodplain Sedimentation 414
19.6 Sedimentology of the Jamuna River 418
19.7 Applied Geomorphology and Engineering in the Jamuna River 423
19.8 Summary 427
Acknowledgements 429
References 430
20 The Mekong River: Morphology, Evolution, Management 435
Avijit Gupta
20.1 Introduction 435
20.2 The Mekong Basin 437
20.2.1 Geology 437
20.2.2 Relief 437
20.2.3 Hydrology 439
20.2.4 Land Use 440
20.3 The River 443
20.4 The Mekong Over Time: The Geomorphic History 449
20.5 Erosion and Sediment Transfer 450
20.6 The Mekong and its Basin: Resource and Management 451
20.7 Conclusion 453
Acknowledgements 453
References 453
21 Dynamic Hydrology and Geomorphology of the Yangtze River 457
Zhongyuan Chen, Kaiqin Xu and Masataka Watanabe
21.1 Basin Geology and Landforms 457
21.2 River Morphology 460
21.3 Storage and Transfer of Water and Sediment 460
21.3.1 Discharge and Flood Patterns 460
21.3.2 Sediment Flux in the Yangtze: A Decreasing Trend over the Last 40 Years 462
21.3.3 Three Gorges Area: A New Sediment Provenance and a Depleted Valley 463
21.3.4 Middle Yangtze: Sediment Sources and Sinks 463
21.3.5 The Lower Yangtze: Transfer of Sediment 466
21.3.6 The Yangtze Estuary: A Major Sediment Sink 466
21.4 Large-scale River Management - Three Gorges Dam and the Planned Water Transfer 467
Acknowledgements 468
References 468
Part III: Measurement and Management
22 The Nile River: Geology, Hydrology, Hydraulic Society 471
M. Gordon Wolman and Robert F. Giegengack
22.1 Introduction 471
22.2 Physiography 471
22.2.1 The Lake District 472
22.2.2 The Lowlands of Southern Sudan 472
22.2.3 The Ethiopian Tableland 472
22.2.4 The Cataract Reach 474
22.2.5 The Alluvial Nile 475
22.3 Geologic History 475
22.3.1 White Nile: Uganda, Kenya, Sudan 475
22.3.2 Egypt 476
22.3.3 The Blue Nile and the Atbara: Ethiopia 477
22.4 Climate and Climate Change 477
22.4.1 Introduction 477
22.4.2 The Region 479
22.5 Hydrology 481
22.5.1 Introduction 481
22.5.2 The White Nile 482
22.5.3 The Blue Nile 483
22.5.4 The Nile below Khartoum 483
22.5.5 The Nile Flows in Egypt 484
22.6 A Unique Record 484
22.7 The Nile and Hydraulic Civilizations 485
Acknowledgements 489
References 489
23 Patterns and Controls on Historical Channel Change in the Willamette River, Oregon, USA 491
Jennifer Rose Wallick, Gordon E. Grant, Stephen T. Lancaster, John P. Bolte and Roger P. Denlinger
23.1 Introduction 491
23.2 An Approach for Interpreting Multiple Impacts on Large Rivers 493
23.3 Geologic Setting, Human and Flood History of the Willamette 495
23.3.1 Watershed Physiography and Climate 495
23.3.2 Geological Setting of the Willamette in Relation to Channel Stability 495
23.3.3 Study Length Delineation 497
23.3.4 Timeline and Consequences of Euro-American Interaction with Willamette River 498
23.3.5 Flood History of the Willamette River 500
23.4 Data and Methods for Measuring Historical Channel Change 501
23.4.1 Historical Channel Maps 501
23.4.2 Measuring Rates and Styles of Channel Change 502
23.4.3 Development of a Two-Dimensional Flood Model for Willamette River 503
23.5 Results: Patterns and Controls on Historical Channel Changes 503
23.5.1 McKenzie Reach, 1850-1995 503
23.5.2 Long Tom Reach, 1850-1995 506
23.5.3 Santiam Reach, 1850-1995 506
23.5.4 Summary of Willamette River Channel Change, 1850-1995 506
23.5.5 Flood Model Results 507
23.6 Discussion, Narrative of Historical Channel Change 507
23.6.1 Interpreting Historical Channel Change, 1850-1995 508
23.6.2 Extending Lessons learned on the Willamette to Other Large Rivers 511
23.7 Conclusion 513
Acknowledgements 514
References 514
24 Rivers And Humans - Unintended Consequences 517
Stanley A. Schumm
24.1 Introduction 517
24.2 Armour 517
24.2.1 Missouri River 517
24.2.2 River Nile 518
24.2.3 Mississippi River 521
24.3 Hydrology 524
24.3.1 Platte River 524
24.3.2 Niobrara River 530
24.3.3 Middle Mississippi River 530
24.4 Conclusion 532
References 532
25 Large Rivers from Space 535
Leal A.K. Mertes and T. Tamuka Magadzire
25.1 Introduction 535
25.2 Basin Characteristics 536
25.3 Valley Configuration 537
25.4 Geomorphology 539
25.5 Water-Surface Elevation, Gradient and Discharge 542
25.6 Water Extent and Inundation Mapping 542
25.7 Mapping Sediment Concentration 542
25.8 Zambezi River - Water Type Mapping on Floodplains 546
25.9 Thermal Properties 546
25.10 Change Detection 548
25.10.1 Mesopotamian Marshlands 548
References 550
26 Channel Geometry Analysis Technique for the Lower Mississippi River 553
Philip J. Soar, Colin R. Thorne, Oliver P. Harmar, David S. Biedenharn and C. Fred Pinkard
26.1 Introduction 553
26.2 Context 554
26.2.1 Lower Mississippi River Channel Geometry 554
26.3 Data Acquisition and Pre-Processing 556
26.3.1 Pilot Study Reach 556
26.3.2 Low Water Reference Plane 556
26.3.3 Separation of Bends and Crossings 557
26.3.4 Divided Channels 557
26.3.5 Pre-Processing Procedure for Hydrographic Survey Files 558
26.3.6 Data Projection 559
26.3.7 Cross-Section Screening 559
26.4 Analytical Approach and Methodology 560
26.4.1 Channel Geometry Analysis 560
26.4.2 Probability Analysis 561
26.4.3 Spatial Analysis 561
26.4.4 Temporal Analysis 563
26.5 Results 563
26.5.1 At-a-station Channel Geometry 563
26.5.2 Spatial Variability and Adjustments 563
26.5.3 Temporal Variability and Adjustments 563
26.6 Interpretation and Commentary 563
26.6.1 Channel Geometry Analysis 563
26.6.2 Spatial Analysis 568
26.6.3 Temporal Analysis 568
26.7 Conclusion 569
Acknowledgements 569
References 569
27 The Management of Large Rivers: Technical and Political Challenges 571
Ian C. Campbell
27.1 Introduction 571
27.2 The Challenges of River Management 574
27.2.1 Technical Challenges 574
27.2.2 Political Challenges 576
27.2.3 Resources 579
27.2.4 Commitment and Political Influence 580
27.3 Management of Rivers in Developing Countries 581
27.3.1 Capacity 581
27.3.2 Need for Rapid Development 582
27.3.3 Lack of Inclusivity in Governance 582
27.3.4 Subsistence Use 582
27.4 Conclusion 583
References 583
28 The Physical Diversity and Assessment of a Large River System: The Murray-Darling Basin, Australia 587
Martin C. Thoms, Scott C. Rayburg and Melissa R. Neave
28.1 Introduction 587
28.2 The Murray-Darling Basin 588
28.3 The Science Challenge for Assessing Rivers in the Murray-Darling Basin 591
28.3.1 The Theory 591
28.3.2 Application 593
28.4 Assessing the Physical Condition of Rivers at the Catchment Scale 596
28.5 The Physical Condition of Rivers in the Murray-Darling Basin 598
28.5.1 Functional Process Zones 600
28.6 The Geography of Disturbance 603
28.7 Conclusion 604
Acknowledgements 605
References 605
29 Climatic and Anthropogenic Impacts on Water and Sediment Discharges from the Yangtze River (Changjiang), 1950-2005 609
Kehui Xu, John D. Milliman, Zuosheng Yang and Hui Xu
29.1 Introduction 609
29.2 Physical Setting 610
29.3 Data and Methods 611
29.4 Spatial Variations of Water and Sediment 611
29.5 Temporal Variations of Water and Sediment 613
29.5.1 Annual Variations 613
29.5.2 Monthly Variations 615
29.6 Discussion - Climatic and Anthropogenic Impacts 616
29.6.1 Climatic Impacts 616
29.6.2 Anthropogenic Impacts 619
29.7 Future Change and Coastal Responses 621
29.7.1 Water Discharge 621
29.7.2 Sediment Discharge 621
29.7.3 Coastal Responses 621
29.8 Climatic and Anthropogenic Impacts on Other Global Rivers - The Mississippi Example 622
29.9 Conclusion 622
Acknowledgements 624
References 624
30 Large River Systems and Climate Change 627
Michael D. Blum
30.1 Introduction 627
30.2 A Brief History of Ideas 627
30.3 Fluvial Response to Climate Change: Some General Concepts 631
30.3.1 Continental Interiors: Uplift, Subsidence, and Climate Change 634
30.3.2 Continental Margins: Importance of Relative Sea-Level Change 637
30.4 Fluvial Response to Past Climate Change: Contrasting Examples 638
30.4.1 The Colorado River in Grand Canyon, Western USA 638
30.4.2 The Ganga-Brahmaputra System, India and Bangladesh 643
30.4.3 The Lower Mississippi River, South-central USA 646
30.5 Epilogue: Large Rivers and Climate Change, Past to Future 649
References 656
Index 661
List of Contributors xix
1 Introduction 1
Avijit Gupta
1.1 A Book on Large Rivers 1
1.2 What is a Large River? 2
1.3 The Book and its Content 2
References 4
Part I: Background
2 Geology of Large River Systems 7
Sampat K. Tandon and Rajiv Sinha
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Tectonic Settings of Large River Systems 8
2.2.1 Rivers in Continental Collision Belts 9
2.2.2 Rivers in Rift Settings 10
2.2.3 Rivers in Cratonic Settings 10
2.3 Complexity of Drainage Types 11
2.4 Large Rivers - Climatic Settings and Climatic Variability 13
2.5 Modern Large Rivers - Hydrology and Sediment Dispersal 15
2.6 Variability in the Alluvial Architecture of Large River Systems 17
2.6.1 Longitudinal Trunk Systems 18
2.6.2 Radial Fans 20
2.6.3 Fan-Interfan Setting 20
2.6.4 Interfluves 20
2.7 Growth and Development of Large River Systems 21
2.8 Duration of Large River Systems and the Rock Record 22
2.9 Sea Level, Tectonic and Climatic Controls on the Large River Systems 22
2.10 Concluding Remarks 24
Acknowledgements 25
References 25
3 Hydrology and Discharge 29
Ellen E. Wohl
3.1 Hydrology of Large River Basins 29
3.2 Large Rivers of the Equatorial Regions 32
3.2.1 Amazon River 32
3.2.2 Congo River 35
3.2.3 Zambezi River 35
3.3 Large Rivers of the Drylands 35
3.3.1 Nile River 35
3.3.2 Indus River 36
3.3.3 Colorado River 36
3.3.4 Murray-Darling River 36
3.4 Rivers of the Mid-latitudes 37
3.4.1 Mississippi River 37
3.4.2 Danube River 37
3.5 Rivers Draining South from the Himalaya 37
3.5.1 Ganga River 38
3.5.2 Brahmaputra River 38
3.6 Rivers of East and Southeast Asia 38
3.6.1 Huanghe 38
3.6.2 Changjiang 39
3.6.3 Mekong River 39
3.7 High-latitude Rivers 39
3.7.1 Ob, Yenisey and Lena Rivers 40
3.7.2 Mackenzie and Yukon Rivers 40
3.8 Summary 40
Acknowledgements 41
References 41
4 Transcontinental Moving and Storage: The Orinoco and Amazon Rivers Transfer the Andes to the Atlantic 45
Robert H. Meade
4.1 Introduction 45
4.2 Andean Sources and Alluvial Storage 45
4.3 Orinoco 47
4.4 Amazon 49
4.4.1 Setting 49
4.4.2 Storage and Remobilization of Floodplain Sediment 52
4.4.3 Sediment Storage in the Lowermost Amazon Valley 57
4.5 The Amazon Goes to Sea 57
4.6 Coda 59
Acknowledgements 60
References 60
5 Greatest Floods and Largest Rivers 65
Victor R. Baker
5.1 Introduction 65
5.2 Historical Background 65
5.3 Terrestrial Glacial Megafloods 66
5.3.1 Cordilleran Ice Sheet 66
5.3.2 Laurentide Ice Sheet 66
5.3.3 Eurasian Ice Sheets 68
5.3.4 Central Asian Mountains 70
5.4 Extraterrestrial Megafloods and Megarivers 71
5.5 Conclusion 72
References 72
6 Classification, Architecture, and Evolution of Large-River Deltas 75
Kazuaki Hori and Yoshiki Saito
6.1 Introduction 75
6.2 Definition of a Delta and Delta Components 77
6.3 Classification of Deltas 79
6.4 Morphology and Sediment 82
6.4.1 Morphology 82
6.4.2 Sediments and Sediment Facies 85
6.4.3 Sediment Accumulation Rates 86
6.5 Delta Evolution 87
6.5.1 Response to Holocene Sea-Level Change 87
6.5.2 Changes in the Course of a River Channel and of its Distributaries 88
6.5.3 Coastal Environment Change Related to Delta Progradation 90
6.6 Problems of Sediment Supply 90
6.6.1 Estimation of Past Sediment Discharge 90
6.6.2 Sediment Budgets in Deltas and Sediment Supply to the Oceans 91
6.7 Concluding Remarks 91
Acknowledgements 92
References 92
7 Sedimentology and Stratigraphy of Large River Deposits: Recognition in the Ancient Record, and Distinction from 'Incised Valley Fills' 97
Christopher R. Fielding
7.1 Introduction 97
7.2 Sedimentology and Stratigraphy of Modern Big Rivers 100
7.3 Sedimentology and Stratigraphy of Ancient Big Rivers 103
7.4 Discussion: Ancient Big River Deposits vs 'Incised Valley Fills' 105
7.5 Conclusion 107
Acknowledgements 108
References 108
Part II: Case Studies
8 Effects of Tectonism, Climate Change, and Sea-level Change on the Form and Behaviour of the Modern Amazon River and its Floodplain 115
Leal A.K. Mertes and Thomas Dunne
8.1 Background 115
8.2 Amazon Basin Characteristics 116
8.3 Lithologic and Tectonic Influences on the Modern Amazon 117
8.3.1 First-Order Basin-Scale Influences 117
8.3.2 Second-Order Transverse Structures 121
8.3.3 Fracture Patterns 121
8.3.4 Structural Influences on Amazon River Geomorphology 125
8.4 Influence of Climate Change on the Amazon River 132
8.5 Influence of Sea-Level Changes on the Amazon River and Floodplain 135
8.6 Conclusion 139
Acknowledgements 140
References 140
9 The Mississippi River System 145
James C. Knox
9.1 Introduction 145
9.2 Cenozoic Drainage Evolution 145
9.3 Influence of Quaternary Glaciations 148
9.4 Proglacial Lakes and Extreme Floods 150
9.5 Response of the Lower Mississippi Valley to Upper Valley Glaciation and Flooding 151
9.6 The Mississippi River System during the Holocene 153
9.6.1 Climate and Vegetation Changes 153
9.6.2 Holocene Alluvial Episodes 156
9.6.3 Holocene Flood Episodes in the Upper Mississippi Valley 156
9.6.4 Lower Valley Alluvial Responses to Upper Valley Holocene Environmental Change 160
9.7 Morphology of the Mississippi River 162
9.7.1 Upper Mississippi River 162
9.7.2 Lower Mississippi River 165
9.8 Modern Hydrology 167
9.8.1 Climate, Runoff, and Floods 167
9.8.2 Dams: Flow Modification and Sediment Storage 171
9.9 The Mississippi River System: Summary and Outlook 174
Acknowledgments 177
References 177
10 The Colorado River 183
John C. Schmidt
10.1 Introduction 183
10.2 Physiography 186
10.2.1 Description of the Green and Colorado Rivers, from Headwaters to the Sea 187
10.3 Age of the River 189
10.4 Gradient, Valley Width, and Channel Form in the Colorado Plateau 191
10.5 Hydrology: Pre-dam 193
10.6 Hydrology: Post-dam 196
10.6.1 Upper Basin 197
10.6.2 Lower Basin 198
10.7 Pre-Dam and Post-Dam Sediment Yield and Sediment Transport 200
10.8 Channel Adjustment and Change During the Twentieth Century 203
10.8.1 The Delta 204
10.8.2 The Imperial Valley and Salton Sea 206
10.8.3 The Lower River 208
10.8.4 The River System within the Colorado Plateau 209
10.9 Implications of Hydrology, Sediment Transport, Channel Change, and Temperature to the Endemic Fishery 211
10.10 Environmental Management of the Modern River 215
10.10.1 The Glen Canyon Dam Adaptive Management Program 215
10.10.2 Opportunities for Recovery of the Delta Ecosystem 217
10.11 The Future 217
10.11.1 The Delta and Lower River 217
10.11.2 The Grand Canyon Ecosystem 217
10.11.3 The Upper Basin 219
10.12 Conclusion 219
References 219
11 The Lena River: Hydromorphodynamic Features in a Deep Permafrost Zone 225
Francois Costard and Emmanuele Gautier
11.1 Introduction 225
11.2 Description of the Lena Drainage Basin 225
11.3 A Periglacial Environment 227
11.4 Floodplain, Delta and Periglacial Landforms 227
11.5 Fluvial Dynamics and Landforms 227
11.6 Thermal Erosion and its Impact on the Fluvial Forms 231
11.7 Impact of Climatic Change on the Hydrosystem 232
11.8 Conclusion 232
References 232
12 The Danube: Morphology, Evolution and Environmental Issues 235
Denes Loczy
12.1 Introduction 235
12.2 Water and Sediment 235
12.3 Headwaters of the Danube 238
12.4 The Danube: a Description 239
12.4.1 The Upper Danube in Germany and Austria 239
12.4.2 The Middle Danube (Slovakia, Hungary and Serbia) 241
12.4.3 The Lower Danube (Romania, Bulgaria and Ukraine) 242
12.5 The Danube Delta 242
12.5.1 Delta Habitats and Environmental Problems 243
12.6 The Evolution of the Valley of the Danube 245
12.6.1 The Upper Section 245
12.6.2 The Middle Section 251
12.6.3 The Lower Section 253
12.6.4 The Delta 254
12.7 Human Impacts 254
12.7.1 A Brief History of Channelization 254
12.7.2 The Rhine-Main-Danube Canal 256
12.7.3 A Recent Example of Damming the Danube: the Gabcikovo Barrage in Slovakia 256
12.7.4 Pollution 256
12.7.5 How Much is the Danube Worth? 257
References 257
13 The Nile: Evolution, Quaternary River Environments and Material Fluxes 261
Jamie C. Woodward, Mark G. Macklin, Michael D. Krom and Martin A. J. Williams
13.1 Introduction 261
13.2 Nile Basin River Environments 263
13.3 Early Origins and the Late Miocene and Pliocene Nile 265
13.3.1 The Late Miocene Nile Canyon in Egypt 265
13.3.2 The Integrated Nile 267
13.4 The Late Pleistocene and Holocene Nile 268
13.4.1 20 000 to 12 500 14 C Years BP 268
13.4.2 12 500 to 5000 14 C Years BP 270
13.4.3 5000 14 C Years BP to Present 272
13.5 Records of Nile River Behaviour in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea 273
13.6 The Modern Nile: Hydrology and Geomorphology 274
13.6.1 The White Nile Basin 274
13.6.2 The Blue Nile and Atbara Basins 277
13.6.3 The Confluence Zone and the Desert Nile from Khartoum to the Mediterranean 278
13.7 The Suspended Sediment Budget 279
13.7.1 Reservoir Sedimentation 281
13.7.2 Suspended Sediment Dynamics Downstream of the Aswan High Dam 283
13.8 The Nile Delta and the Eastern Mediterranean 284
13.8.1 The Delta and Coastal Zone 284
13.8.2 Sediment Supply to the Eastern Mediterranean Sea 284
13.9 River Basin Management and Global Change 287
Acknowledgements 289
References 289
14 The Congo River, Central Africa 293
Juergen Runge
14.1 Introduction 293
14.2 The Course of the Congo River 293
14.3 Geology and Geomorphology of the Congo Basin 299
14.3.1 The Central Congo Basin 299
14.3.2 The Asande Rise 301
14.3.3 The Atlantic Rise 301
14.3.4 The Angolan and Shaba Highland 302
14.3.5 The Western Rift Rise 302
14.4 Evolution of the Congo River 302
14.5 The Flow Regime of the Congo 303
14.6 Solid, Suspended, and Dissolved Load 303
14.7 The Congo Mouth and the Submarine Canyon 306
14.8 The Congo River and its Economic Importance 307
14.9 Conclusion 308
Acknowledgements 308
References 308
15 The Zambezi River 311
Andy E. Moore, Fenton P.D. (Woody) Cotterill, Mike P.L. Main and Hugh B. Williams
15.1 Introduction 311
15.2 The Zambezi River System 313
15.3 Hydrology 317
15.4 Ecological Impact of Major Dams 320
15.5 Evolution of the Zambezi River System 321
15.6 Drainage Evolution and Speciation 328
15.7 Cultural and Economic Aspects 330
15.8 Conclusion 330
Acknowledgements 331
References 331
16 The Geographic, Geological and Oceanographic Setting of the Indus River 333
Asif Inam, Peter D. Clift, Liviu Giosan, Ali Rashid Tabrez, Muhammad Tahir, Muhammad Moazam Rabbani and Muhammad Danish
16.1 Introduction 333
16.2 The Drainage Basin 334
16.2.1 Geology 334
16.2.2 Hydrology 334
16.3 The River 335
16.4 Evolution of the Indus River 335
16.5 The Indus Delta 336
16.6 Submarine Indus System 338
16.7 Water Management 339
16.8 The Indus Dolphins 341
16.9 Environmental Changes 342
16.10 Human-Induced Changes in the Indus Delta 342
16.11 Conclusion 344
References 345
17 The Ganga River 347
Indra B. Singh
17.1 Introduction 347
17.2 Hydrology 347
17.3 Water Quality 353
17.4 Sediment Transfer in the Ganga 353
17.4.1 Dissolved Load 353
17.4.2 Suspended Load and Bed Load 353
17.5 Mineralogy and Geochemistry of Sediments 355
17.6 Heavy Metals and Pollutants in the Sediment 356
17.7 The Plain and the River 356
17.8 The Delta 362
17.9 A Summary of Current Geomorphic Processes 365
17.10 Quaternary Evolution of the Ganga 366
17.11 Utilization of the River and Associated Problems 367
Acknowledgements 368
References 368
18 Erosion and Weathering in the Brahmaputra River System 373
Sunil K. Singh
18.1 Introduction 373
18.2 The Brahmaputra River System 373
18.3 Geology of the Basin 375
18.4 Hydrology 377
18.5 Floods in the Brahmaputra 378
18.6 Characteristics of the Brahmaputra Channel 381
18.7 Erosion and Weathering 382
18.8 Sediment Yield or Erosion Rates in the Various Zones 386
18.9 Chemical Weathering and Erosion 386
18.9.1 Water Chemistry 387
18.9.2 Silicate Weathering 388
18.10 Bed Load and Weathering Intensity 389
18.11 Control of Physical and Chemical Erosion in the Brahmaputra Basin 389
18.12 Conclusion 391
References 391
19 The Brahmaputra-Jamuna River, Bangladesh 395
James L. Best, Philip J. Ashworth, Maminul H. Sarker and Julie E. Roden
19.1 Background 395
19.1.1 The River 395
19.1.2 Basinal Setting and Controls on Sedimentation 397
19.1.3 Hydrology, Sediment Yield and Channel Size 398
19.2 Channel Scale Morphology and Historical Changes in the Course of the Brahmaputra-Jamuna River 399
19.3 Bedform Types and Dynamics 405
19.3.1 Small-Scale Bedforms (ripples, dunes and upper-stage plane beds) 405
19.3.2 Large-Scale Bedforms (bars and bar complexes) 407
19.4 Bifurcations, Offtakes and Confluences 413
19.5 Floodplain Sedimentation 414
19.6 Sedimentology of the Jamuna River 418
19.7 Applied Geomorphology and Engineering in the Jamuna River 423
19.8 Summary 427
Acknowledgements 429
References 430
20 The Mekong River: Morphology, Evolution, Management 435
Avijit Gupta
20.1 Introduction 435
20.2 The Mekong Basin 437
20.2.1 Geology 437
20.2.2 Relief 437
20.2.3 Hydrology 439
20.2.4 Land Use 440
20.3 The River 443
20.4 The Mekong Over Time: The Geomorphic History 449
20.5 Erosion and Sediment Transfer 450
20.6 The Mekong and its Basin: Resource and Management 451
20.7 Conclusion 453
Acknowledgements 453
References 453
21 Dynamic Hydrology and Geomorphology of the Yangtze River 457
Zhongyuan Chen, Kaiqin Xu and Masataka Watanabe
21.1 Basin Geology and Landforms 457
21.2 River Morphology 460
21.3 Storage and Transfer of Water and Sediment 460
21.3.1 Discharge and Flood Patterns 460
21.3.2 Sediment Flux in the Yangtze: A Decreasing Trend over the Last 40 Years 462
21.3.3 Three Gorges Area: A New Sediment Provenance and a Depleted Valley 463
21.3.4 Middle Yangtze: Sediment Sources and Sinks 463
21.3.5 The Lower Yangtze: Transfer of Sediment 466
21.3.6 The Yangtze Estuary: A Major Sediment Sink 466
21.4 Large-scale River Management - Three Gorges Dam and the Planned Water Transfer 467
Acknowledgements 468
References 468
Part III: Measurement and Management
22 The Nile River: Geology, Hydrology, Hydraulic Society 471
M. Gordon Wolman and Robert F. Giegengack
22.1 Introduction 471
22.2 Physiography 471
22.2.1 The Lake District 472
22.2.2 The Lowlands of Southern Sudan 472
22.2.3 The Ethiopian Tableland 472
22.2.4 The Cataract Reach 474
22.2.5 The Alluvial Nile 475
22.3 Geologic History 475
22.3.1 White Nile: Uganda, Kenya, Sudan 475
22.3.2 Egypt 476
22.3.3 The Blue Nile and the Atbara: Ethiopia 477
22.4 Climate and Climate Change 477
22.4.1 Introduction 477
22.4.2 The Region 479
22.5 Hydrology 481
22.5.1 Introduction 481
22.5.2 The White Nile 482
22.5.3 The Blue Nile 483
22.5.4 The Nile below Khartoum 483
22.5.5 The Nile Flows in Egypt 484
22.6 A Unique Record 484
22.7 The Nile and Hydraulic Civilizations 485
Acknowledgements 489
References 489
23 Patterns and Controls on Historical Channel Change in the Willamette River, Oregon, USA 491
Jennifer Rose Wallick, Gordon E. Grant, Stephen T. Lancaster, John P. Bolte and Roger P. Denlinger
23.1 Introduction 491
23.2 An Approach for Interpreting Multiple Impacts on Large Rivers 493
23.3 Geologic Setting, Human and Flood History of the Willamette 495
23.3.1 Watershed Physiography and Climate 495
23.3.2 Geological Setting of the Willamette in Relation to Channel Stability 495
23.3.3 Study Length Delineation 497
23.3.4 Timeline and Consequences of Euro-American Interaction with Willamette River 498
23.3.5 Flood History of the Willamette River 500
23.4 Data and Methods for Measuring Historical Channel Change 501
23.4.1 Historical Channel Maps 501
23.4.2 Measuring Rates and Styles of Channel Change 502
23.4.3 Development of a Two-Dimensional Flood Model for Willamette River 503
23.5 Results: Patterns and Controls on Historical Channel Changes 503
23.5.1 McKenzie Reach, 1850-1995 503
23.5.2 Long Tom Reach, 1850-1995 506
23.5.3 Santiam Reach, 1850-1995 506
23.5.4 Summary of Willamette River Channel Change, 1850-1995 506
23.5.5 Flood Model Results 507
23.6 Discussion, Narrative of Historical Channel Change 507
23.6.1 Interpreting Historical Channel Change, 1850-1995 508
23.6.2 Extending Lessons learned on the Willamette to Other Large Rivers 511
23.7 Conclusion 513
Acknowledgements 514
References 514
24 Rivers And Humans - Unintended Consequences 517
Stanley A. Schumm
24.1 Introduction 517
24.2 Armour 517
24.2.1 Missouri River 517
24.2.2 River Nile 518
24.2.3 Mississippi River 521
24.3 Hydrology 524
24.3.1 Platte River 524
24.3.2 Niobrara River 530
24.3.3 Middle Mississippi River 530
24.4 Conclusion 532
References 532
25 Large Rivers from Space 535
Leal A.K. Mertes and T. Tamuka Magadzire
25.1 Introduction 535
25.2 Basin Characteristics 536
25.3 Valley Configuration 537
25.4 Geomorphology 539
25.5 Water-Surface Elevation, Gradient and Discharge 542
25.6 Water Extent and Inundation Mapping 542
25.7 Mapping Sediment Concentration 542
25.8 Zambezi River - Water Type Mapping on Floodplains 546
25.9 Thermal Properties 546
25.10 Change Detection 548
25.10.1 Mesopotamian Marshlands 548
References 550
26 Channel Geometry Analysis Technique for the Lower Mississippi River 553
Philip J. Soar, Colin R. Thorne, Oliver P. Harmar, David S. Biedenharn and C. Fred Pinkard
26.1 Introduction 553
26.2 Context 554
26.2.1 Lower Mississippi River Channel Geometry 554
26.3 Data Acquisition and Pre-Processing 556
26.3.1 Pilot Study Reach 556
26.3.2 Low Water Reference Plane 556
26.3.3 Separation of Bends and Crossings 557
26.3.4 Divided Channels 557
26.3.5 Pre-Processing Procedure for Hydrographic Survey Files 558
26.3.6 Data Projection 559
26.3.7 Cross-Section Screening 559
26.4 Analytical Approach and Methodology 560
26.4.1 Channel Geometry Analysis 560
26.4.2 Probability Analysis 561
26.4.3 Spatial Analysis 561
26.4.4 Temporal Analysis 563
26.5 Results 563
26.5.1 At-a-station Channel Geometry 563
26.5.2 Spatial Variability and Adjustments 563
26.5.3 Temporal Variability and Adjustments 563
26.6 Interpretation and Commentary 563
26.6.1 Channel Geometry Analysis 563
26.6.2 Spatial Analysis 568
26.6.3 Temporal Analysis 568
26.7 Conclusion 569
Acknowledgements 569
References 569
27 The Management of Large Rivers: Technical and Political Challenges 571
Ian C. Campbell
27.1 Introduction 571
27.2 The Challenges of River Management 574
27.2.1 Technical Challenges 574
27.2.2 Political Challenges 576
27.2.3 Resources 579
27.2.4 Commitment and Political Influence 580
27.3 Management of Rivers in Developing Countries 581
27.3.1 Capacity 581
27.3.2 Need for Rapid Development 582
27.3.3 Lack of Inclusivity in Governance 582
27.3.4 Subsistence Use 582
27.4 Conclusion 583
References 583
28 The Physical Diversity and Assessment of a Large River System: The Murray-Darling Basin, Australia 587
Martin C. Thoms, Scott C. Rayburg and Melissa R. Neave
28.1 Introduction 587
28.2 The Murray-Darling Basin 588
28.3 The Science Challenge for Assessing Rivers in the Murray-Darling Basin 591
28.3.1 The Theory 591
28.3.2 Application 593
28.4 Assessing the Physical Condition of Rivers at the Catchment Scale 596
28.5 The Physical Condition of Rivers in the Murray-Darling Basin 598
28.5.1 Functional Process Zones 600
28.6 The Geography of Disturbance 603
28.7 Conclusion 604
Acknowledgements 605
References 605
29 Climatic and Anthropogenic Impacts on Water and Sediment Discharges from the Yangtze River (Changjiang), 1950-2005 609
Kehui Xu, John D. Milliman, Zuosheng Yang and Hui Xu
29.1 Introduction 609
29.2 Physical Setting 610
29.3 Data and Methods 611
29.4 Spatial Variations of Water and Sediment 611
29.5 Temporal Variations of Water and Sediment 613
29.5.1 Annual Variations 613
29.5.2 Monthly Variations 615
29.6 Discussion - Climatic and Anthropogenic Impacts 616
29.6.1 Climatic Impacts 616
29.6.2 Anthropogenic Impacts 619
29.7 Future Change and Coastal Responses 621
29.7.1 Water Discharge 621
29.7.2 Sediment Discharge 621
29.7.3 Coastal Responses 621
29.8 Climatic and Anthropogenic Impacts on Other Global Rivers - The Mississippi Example 622
29.9 Conclusion 622
Acknowledgements 624
References 624
30 Large River Systems and Climate Change 627
Michael D. Blum
30.1 Introduction 627
30.2 A Brief History of Ideas 627
30.3 Fluvial Response to Climate Change: Some General Concepts 631
30.3.1 Continental Interiors: Uplift, Subsidence, and Climate Change 634
30.3.2 Continental Margins: Importance of Relative Sea-Level Change 637
30.4 Fluvial Response to Past Climate Change: Contrasting Examples 638
30.4.1 The Colorado River in Grand Canyon, Western USA 638
30.4.2 The Ganga-Brahmaputra System, India and Bangladesh 643
30.4.3 The Lower Mississippi River, South-central USA 646
30.5 Epilogue: Large Rivers and Climate Change, Past to Future 649
References 656
Index 661