Research Methods
A Process of Inquiry: International Edition
8th Edition
Published on 2. August 2012
Book
Paperback/Softback
464 pages
978-0-205-92091-4 (ISBN)
Description
Explores the entire range of research methodologies in psychology.
This comprehensive text uses a carefully constructed programmatic approach to introduce topics and systematically build on earlier presentations. Research Methods emphasizes research concepts, as well as specific, technical research strategies, to help students develop an understanding of the underlying rational-empirical processes of science and gain specific research skills.
The authors provide clearly written explanations of concepts and numerous examples drawn from all areas of psychology to enable students to develop a sophisticated understanding of the research process. The 8th edition includes an extensive integrated Web site (http://www.mikeraulin.com/graziano8e/) with a variety of resources for students.
Learning Goals
Upon completing this book readers will be able to:
Understand the concepts of research design
Develop research skills based on a knowledge of appropriate research design
Develop a sensitivity to ethical issues in research and the skills necessary to address these issues
Understand basic statistical concepts
Note: MySearchLab does not come automatically packaged with this text. To purchase MySearchLab, please visit: www.mysearchlab.com or you can purchase a ValuePack of the text + MySearchLab (at no additional cost): ValuePack ISBN-10: 0205900925 / ValuePack ISBN-13: 9780205900923.
This comprehensive text uses a carefully constructed programmatic approach to introduce topics and systematically build on earlier presentations. Research Methods emphasizes research concepts, as well as specific, technical research strategies, to help students develop an understanding of the underlying rational-empirical processes of science and gain specific research skills.
The authors provide clearly written explanations of concepts and numerous examples drawn from all areas of psychology to enable students to develop a sophisticated understanding of the research process. The 8th edition includes an extensive integrated Web site (http://www.mikeraulin.com/graziano8e/) with a variety of resources for students.
Learning Goals
Upon completing this book readers will be able to:
Understand the concepts of research design
Develop research skills based on a knowledge of appropriate research design
Develop a sensitivity to ethical issues in research and the skills necessary to address these issues
Understand basic statistical concepts
Note: MySearchLab does not come automatically packaged with this text. To purchase MySearchLab, please visit: www.mysearchlab.com or you can purchase a ValuePack of the text + MySearchLab (at no additional cost): ValuePack ISBN-10: 0205900925 / ValuePack ISBN-13: 9780205900923.
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Anthony Graziano | Anthony M. Graziano | Michael L. Raulin
Research Methods: A Process of Inquiry
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Persons
Anthony M. Graziano is Professor Emeritus, Psychology, at the State University of New York, Buffalo. He was Co-Director of the Research Center for Children and Youth and served as the Director of the Clinical Area. Graziano received the B.A. degree from Columbia College and Ph.D. from Purdue University. He completed a clinical internship and a postdoctoral fellowship in child-clinical psychology at the Devereux Foundation. From 1961 to 1968 he developed and operated the first behavioral treatment program in the country for children with autism. Graziano was the first to employ relaxation and systematic desensitization techniques to help teach self-control skills to children with autism. He also served briefly as the Acting Director of the Kennedy Center for children with developmental disabilities. He has been a consultant to agencies in Connecticut, New York and Pennsylvania.
Graziano's research and writing has focused on children and families, and has included: child psychopathology; developmental disabilities; the treatment of childhood disorders; children's fears and phobias; behavior modification; parent training; community psychology; child abuse and neglect; family therapy; and cultural history. His most recent research was on the use of corporal punishment in child rearing, and he has been a long-time opponent of corporal punishment. He is editor, co-author, or author of fifteen books, 86 journal articles and presentations at professional meetings, and a dozen op-ed newspaper columns. Dr. Graziano has been a member of the Board of Directors of the Eastern Psychological Association, People, Inc., a Western New York agency serving persons with developmental disabilities, and the editorial board of the journal, Behavior Modification. When not playing with his grandchildren, Graziano passionately pursues cooking, tennis, carpentry, masonry, drawing cartoons, and traveling Europe with Sheila, his wife of 50 years.
Michael Raulin is a clinical associate professor at the State University of New York, Buffalo, where he has been a faculty member since 1978. He received his BS and Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin at Madison. At Buffalo, he was the director of the Psychological Services Center--the research and training clinic for the Ph.D. program in clinical psychology--and also headed the Ph.D. clinical psychology program for several years. He founded and directed the department's Anxiety Disorders Clinic and maintained a small private practice for 20 years. Dr. Raulin's research has always focused on psychopathology, with most of his work on risk factors in schizophrenia. He has published 30 articles or chapters and is author of an abnormal psychology text. He served on the editorial board of the Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology and the Journal of Abnormal Psychology and reviewed papers for nearly 20 different journals and grant applications for the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. He has been active in psychological affairs, locally, regionally, and nationally. He was president of the Psychological Association of Western New York, chaired the program committees for the Society for Research in Psychopathology and the Eastern Psychological Association, and was president of the National Association of Directors of Psychology Training Clinics and secretary of Society for Research in Psychopathology. He has an excellent reputation for his teaching, with evaluations that consistently place him among the top instructors at the university. He has won awards for teaching and public service and is listed in Who's Who in Among Rising Young Americans, Who's Who Among Health Service Professionals, Who's Who in Science and Engineering, and Who's Who in Medicine and Health Care.
Graziano's research and writing has focused on children and families, and has included: child psychopathology; developmental disabilities; the treatment of childhood disorders; children's fears and phobias; behavior modification; parent training; community psychology; child abuse and neglect; family therapy; and cultural history. His most recent research was on the use of corporal punishment in child rearing, and he has been a long-time opponent of corporal punishment. He is editor, co-author, or author of fifteen books, 86 journal articles and presentations at professional meetings, and a dozen op-ed newspaper columns. Dr. Graziano has been a member of the Board of Directors of the Eastern Psychological Association, People, Inc., a Western New York agency serving persons with developmental disabilities, and the editorial board of the journal, Behavior Modification. When not playing with his grandchildren, Graziano passionately pursues cooking, tennis, carpentry, masonry, drawing cartoons, and traveling Europe with Sheila, his wife of 50 years.
Michael Raulin is a clinical associate professor at the State University of New York, Buffalo, where he has been a faculty member since 1978. He received his BS and Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin at Madison. At Buffalo, he was the director of the Psychological Services Center--the research and training clinic for the Ph.D. program in clinical psychology--and also headed the Ph.D. clinical psychology program for several years. He founded and directed the department's Anxiety Disorders Clinic and maintained a small private practice for 20 years. Dr. Raulin's research has always focused on psychopathology, with most of his work on risk factors in schizophrenia. He has published 30 articles or chapters and is author of an abnormal psychology text. He served on the editorial board of the Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology and the Journal of Abnormal Psychology and reviewed papers for nearly 20 different journals and grant applications for the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. He has been active in psychological affairs, locally, regionally, and nationally. He was president of the Psychological Association of Western New York, chaired the program committees for the Society for Research in Psychopathology and the Eastern Psychological Association, and was president of the National Association of Directors of Psychology Training Clinics and secretary of Society for Research in Psychopathology. He has an excellent reputation for his teaching, with evaluations that consistently place him among the top instructors at the university. He has won awards for teaching and public service and is listed in Who's Who in Among Rising Young Americans, Who's Who Among Health Service Professionals, Who's Who in Science and Engineering, and Who's Who in Medicine and Health Care.
Content
Found in this Section:
1. Brief Table of Contents
2. Full Table of Contents
1. BRIEF TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1 Curiosity, Creativity, and Commitment
Chapter 2 Research is a Process of Inquiry
Chapter 3 The Starting Point: Asking Questions
Chapter 4 Data and the Nature of Measurement
Chapter 5 Statistical Analysis of Data
Chapter 6 Field Research: Naturalistic and Case Study Research
Chapter 7 Correlational and Differential Methods of Research
Chapter 8 Hypothesis Testing, Validity, and Threats to Validity
Chapter 9 Controls to Reduce Threats to Validity
Chapter 10 Single-Variable, Independent-Groups Designs
Chapter 11 Correlated-Groups and Single-Subject Designs
Chapter 12 Factorial Designs
Chapter 13 A Second Look at Field Research: Field Experiments, Program Evaluation, and Survey Research
Appendix A Using the Student Resource Website
Appendix B Writing a Research Report in APA Publication Style
Appendix C Conducting Library Research
Appendix D Selecting Statistical Procedures
Appendix E Research Design Checklist
Appendix F Meta-Analysis
Appendix G Random Numbers
Appendix H Answers to Quick-Check Review Questions
Glossary
References
Name Index
Subject Index
2. FULL TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Curiosity, Creativity, and Commitment
Classic Studies 1.1: Kitty Genovese and Bystander Apathy
Science
Science Is a Way of Thinking
Asking Questions
Historical Lesson 1.1: The Three Princes of Serendip
Science and Art
Historical Lesson 1.2: Leonardo da Vinci
Acquiring Knowledge
Tenacity
Intuition
Authority
Rationalism
Empiricism
Science
Emergence of Science
Early Civilization
Greek Science
Medieval Science
The Scientific Revolution
The Goals of Science
Psychology
The History of Psychology
Structuralism
Functionalism
Psychodynamics
Gestalt Psychology
Behaviorism
Humanistic Psychology
Cognitive Psychology
Women and Minorities in Psychology
Modern Psychology
The Science of Psychology
The Cost of Neglect 1.4: Science and Pseudoscience
Ethical Principles
Using the Resources of this Text
Exploring the Student Resource Website
Using SPSS for Windows
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
Chapter 2: Research is a Process of Inquiry
The Scientific Process
Basic Assumptions of Science
Observation and Inference: Facts and Constructs
Inductive and Deductive Thinking
Models and Theories in Science
Historical Lesson 2.1: The Wright Brothers as Scientists
Types of Theories
Scientific Models
A Model of the Research Process
Phases of Research
Idea-Generating Phase
Problem-Definition Phase
Procedures-Design Phase
Observation Phase
Data Analysis Phase
Interpretation Phase
Communication Phase
Levels of Constraint
Naturalistic Observation
Case Study Research (Case Study Research)
Correlational Research
Differential Research
Experimental Research
Moving from One Constraint Level to Another
Ethical Principles
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
Chapter 3: The Starting Point: Asking Questions
Asking and Refining Questions
Pursuing Your Personal Interests
Following Up on the Work of Others
Historical Lesson 3.1 Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace
Basic, Applied, and Translational Research
Box 3.1 Translational Research
Refining Questions for Research
Types of Variables in Research
Classifying Variables Based on Their Characteristics
Behavioral Variables
Stimulus Variables
Organismic Variables
Classifying Variables Based on Their Use in Research
Independent and Dependent Variables
Extraneous Variables
Variables and Constants
Validity and the Control of Extraneous Variables
Ethical Principles
Ethical Principles for Human Research
Institutional Review Boards
Ethical Checks
Ethics and Diversity Issues in Research
Ethical Principles for Animal Research
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
Chapter 4: Data and the Nature of Measurement
Measurement
The Cost of Neglect 4.1: Missing Mars
Scales of Measurement
Nominal Scales
Ordinal Scales
Interval Scales
Ratio Scales
Measuring and Manipulating Variables
Measurement Error
Operational Definitions
Evaluating Measures
Reliability
Interrater Reliability
Test-Retest Reliability
Internal Consistency Reliability
Effective Range
Validity
The Need for Objective Measurement
Ethical Principles
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
Chapter 5: Statistical Analysis of Data
Individual Differences
Organizing Data
Frequency Distributions
Nominal and Ordinal Data
Score Data
Graphical Representation of Data
Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Central Tendency
The Cost of Neglect 5.1: Lies, Damn Lies, and Statistics
Measures of Variability
Understanding the Concept 5.1: Degrees of Freedom
Measures of Relationship
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation
Other Correlations
Regression
Reliability Indices
Standard Scores
Statistical Inference
Populations and Samples
The Null Hypothesis
Statistical Decisions and Alpha Levels
Type I and Type II Errors
Inferential Statistics
Testing for Mean Differences
The t-Test
Analysis of Variance
The Power of a Statistical Test
Effect Size
Ethical Principles
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
Chapter 6: Field Research: Naturalistic and Case Study Research
The Challenge of Low-Constraint Research
Examples of Naturalistic Observation
Biology
Historical Lesson 6.1: Naturalistic Research and Evolution
Ethology
Sociology
Psychology
Examples of Case Study Research
Sigmund Freud
E. L. Whitmer
Jean Piaget
Contemporary Case Studies
The Value of Low-Constraint Methods
Conditions for Using Low-Constraint Research
Exploratory Research
Creative Starting Point for Research
Familiarize Oneself with a New Research Area
Demonstrating Feasibility
Testing Generalizability
Understanding the Concept 6.1: The Therapist as Scientist
Information Gained from Low-Constraint Research
Identifying New Information
Negating a General Proposition
Identifying Contingencies
Qualitative Research Methods
Using Low-Constraint Methods
Problem Statements and Research Hypotheses
Making Observations
How to Observe
Unobtrusive Measures
Archival Measures
Sampling of Participants
Sampling of Situations
Sampling of Behaviors
Evaluating and Interpreting Data
Limitations of Low-Constraint Methods
Poor Representativeness
Poor Replicability
Causal Inference and Low-Constraint Research
Limitations of the Observer
Going Beyond the Data
Ethical Principles
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
Chapter 7: Correlational and Differential Methods of Research
Defining Correlational and Differential Research
Correlational Research Methods
Differential Research Methods
Cross-Sectional versus Longitudinal Research
Artifacts and Confounding
Comparing These Methods
When to Use These Methods
Conducting Correlational Research
Problem Statements
Secondary Analyses
Measuring the Variables
Sampling
Analyzing the Data
Interpreting the Correlation
Conducting Differential Research
Problem Statements
Measuring the Variables
Selecting Appropriate Control Groups
Sampling
Analyzing the Data
Interpreting the Data
Limitations of Correlational and Differential Research
Problems in Determining Causation
Confounding Variables
Ethical Principles
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
Chapter 8: Hypothesis Testing, Validity, and Threats to Validity
Hypothesis Testing
Starting Research with an Initial Idea
Statement of the Problem
Operational Definitions
Research Hypothesis
The Contribution of Theory to the Research Hypothesis
Testing the Research Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis
Confounding Variable Hypothesis
Causal Hypothesis
Validity and Threats to Validity
Statistical Validity
Construct Validity
External Validity
Internal Validity
Major Confounding Variables
Maturation
History
Testing
Instrumentation
Regression to the Mean
Selection
Attrition
Diffusion of Treatment
Sequence Effects
Examples of Confounding
Subject and Experimenter Effects
Subject Effects
Experimenter Effects
Ethical Principles
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
Chapter 9: Controls to Reduce Threats to Validity
General Control Procedures
Preparation of the Setting
Response Measurement
Replication
Control over Subject and Experimenter Effects
Single- and Double-Blind Procedures
Automation
Using Objective Measures
Multiple Observers
Understanding the Concept 9.1: Reliable Reliability
Using Deception
Control through Participant Selection and Assignment
Participant Selection
Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Ad Hoc Samples
Participant Assignment
Free Random Assignment
Randomizing within Blocks
Matched Random Assignment
Other Matching Procedures
Advantages of Random Selection and Assignment
Control through Experimental Design
Ethical Principles
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
Chapter 10: Single-Variable, Independent-Groups Designs
Variance
Sources of Variance
Systematic Between-Groups Variance
Nonsystematic Within-Groups Variance
Controlling Variance in Research
Maximizing Experimental Variance
Controlling Extraneous Variance
Minimizing Error Variance
Nonexperimental Approaches
Ex Post Facto Studies
Single-Group, Posttest-Only Studies
Single-Group, Pretest-Posttest Studies
Pretest-Posttest, Natural Control-Group Studies
Experimental Designs
Randomized, Posttest-Only, Control-Group Design
Randomized, Pretest-Posttest, Control-Group Design
Multilevel, Completely Randomized, Between-Subjects Design
Pretest-Manipulation Interaction: A Potential Problem
Variations on Experimental Designs
Analyses of Variance
Understanding the Concept 10.1: Statistical Power
Specific Means Comparisons in ANOVA
Graphing the Data
Ethical Principles
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
Chapter 11: Correlated-Groups and Single-Subject Designs
Within-Subjects Designs
Using Within-Subjects Designs
Sequence Effects
Subtypes of Sequence Effects
Controlling Sequence Effects
Random Order of Presentation
Counterbalancing
Analyzing Within-Subjects Designs
Strengths and Weaknesses of Within-Subjects Designs
Matched-Subjects Designs
Using Matched-Subjects Designs
Why Use Matched-Subjects Designs
Identifying Matching Variables
The Process of Matching
Deciding on the Matching Variables
Analyzing Matched-Subjects Designs
Strengths and Weaknesses of Matched-Subjects Designs
Single-Subject Experimental Designs
Historical Lesson 11.1: Neuropsychological Cases
ABA Reversal Design
Multiple-Baseline Design
Single-Subject, Randomized, Time-Series Design
Replication in Single-Subject Designs
Ethical Principles
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
Chapter 12: Factorial Designs
Factorial Designs
Main Effects and Interactions
Running the Children's Dark-Fears Study
Possible Outcomes of Factorial Designs
Analysis of Variance in Factorial Designs
Variations of Basic Factorial Design
Within-Subjects or Repeated-Measures Factorial
Mixed Designs
Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects Factors
Manipulated and Nonmanipulated Factors
Mixed in Both Ways
ANOVA: A Postscript
Analysis of Covariance
Multivariate Analysis of Variance
Ethical Principles
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
Chapter 13: A Second Look at Field Research: Field Experiments, Program Evaluation, and Survey Research
Conducting Field Research
Reasons for Doing Field Research
Testing External Validity
Studying Effects in the Field
Improving Generalization
Difficulties in Field Research
Flexibility in Research
Quasi-Experimental Designs
Nonequivalent Control-Group Designs
Interrupted Time-Series Designs
Program Evaluation Research
Historical Lesson 13.1: From Head Start to Heads Up
Practical Problems in Program Evaluation Research
Issues of Control
Selecting Appropriate Dependent Measures
Minimizing Bias in Dependent Measures
Control through Research Design in Program Evaluation
Typical Program Evaluation Designs
Randomized Control-Group Design
Nonequivalent Control-Group Design
Single-Group, Time-Series Design
Pretest-Posttest Design
Program Evaluation Research: An Example
Surveys
Types of Surveys
Status Surveys
Survey Research
Steps in Survey Research
Types of Survey Instruments
Developing the Survey Instrument
Sampling Participants
Sampling Considerations
The Cost of Neglect 13.1: Political Polling and Sampling
Sampling Procedures
Sample Size and Confidence Intervals
Survey Research Design
Cross-Sectional Design
Longitudinal Design
Sequential Design
Ethical Principles
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
A final Note to Students
Appendix A: Using the Student Resource Website
Resources Available
Student Resource Website
MySearchLab Site
What to Do If You Have Problems
Getting Help
Summary
Appendix B: Writing a Research Report in APA Publication Style
Structure of a Research Article
Writing the Research Report
Using Levels of Headings to Organize
Sections of a Research Report
Title Page
Abstract
Introduction
Method
Results
Discussion
References
Writing Style
Summary
Appendix C: Conducting Library Research
Using the Library
Library Resources
The Reference Librarian
How Research Materials Are Organized
Primary Sources
Journal Articles
Dissertations
Secondary Sources
Review Articles
Books and Chapters in Books
Annual Reviews
Finding the Relevant Research
Abstracting Services
Psychological Abstracts
ERIC
Subject or Keyword Services
Library Catalogs
Books in Print
Index Medicus
Readers' Guide to Periodic Literature
Literature Citation Indexes
Search Strategies
Searching by Topic
Identifying Keywords
Computer Searches
Searching Backward
Searching Forward
Summary
Appendix D: Selecting Statistical Procedures
Selecting Appropriate Statistical Procedures
An Initial Example
A Decision-Tree Model
Decision-Tree Flowchart
Describe the Study
Identify the Study's Major Characteristics
Select Appropriate Statistics
Secondary Analyses
Post Hoc Analyses
Analyses to Help to Interpret Results
Data Snooping
Caveats and Disclaimers
Understanding the Concept D.1: The Robust Nature of Parametric Statistics
Summary
Exercises
Appendix E: Research Design Checklist
The Research Design Checklist
Initial Problem Definition
Clarity of the Research Hypotheses
Statistical Analysis Procedures
Theoretical Basis and Operational Definitions
Adequacy of the Independent Variable Manipulation
Adequacy of Dependent Measures
Are All Controls in Place?
Participants
Participant Selection
Sample Size
Participant Assignment
Participant Availability
Research Ethics Considerations
Preparation of the Setting
Space and Equipment
Personnel
Adequacy of Participant Preparation, Instruction, and Procedures
Summary
Appendix F: Meta-Analysis
Logic of Meta-Analysis
Literature Reviews
Alpha Levels and Knowledge
Beta Levels and Knowledge
Meta-Analysis and the Problem of Type II Errors
Appendix G: Random Numbers
Appendix H: Answers to Quick-Check Review Questions
Glossary
References
Name Index
Subject Index
1. Brief Table of Contents
2. Full Table of Contents
1. BRIEF TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1 Curiosity, Creativity, and Commitment
Chapter 2 Research is a Process of Inquiry
Chapter 3 The Starting Point: Asking Questions
Chapter 4 Data and the Nature of Measurement
Chapter 5 Statistical Analysis of Data
Chapter 6 Field Research: Naturalistic and Case Study Research
Chapter 7 Correlational and Differential Methods of Research
Chapter 8 Hypothesis Testing, Validity, and Threats to Validity
Chapter 9 Controls to Reduce Threats to Validity
Chapter 10 Single-Variable, Independent-Groups Designs
Chapter 11 Correlated-Groups and Single-Subject Designs
Chapter 12 Factorial Designs
Chapter 13 A Second Look at Field Research: Field Experiments, Program Evaluation, and Survey Research
Appendix A Using the Student Resource Website
Appendix B Writing a Research Report in APA Publication Style
Appendix C Conducting Library Research
Appendix D Selecting Statistical Procedures
Appendix E Research Design Checklist
Appendix F Meta-Analysis
Appendix G Random Numbers
Appendix H Answers to Quick-Check Review Questions
Glossary
References
Name Index
Subject Index
2. FULL TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Curiosity, Creativity, and Commitment
Classic Studies 1.1: Kitty Genovese and Bystander Apathy
Science
Science Is a Way of Thinking
Asking Questions
Historical Lesson 1.1: The Three Princes of Serendip
Science and Art
Historical Lesson 1.2: Leonardo da Vinci
Acquiring Knowledge
Tenacity
Intuition
Authority
Rationalism
Empiricism
Science
Emergence of Science
Early Civilization
Greek Science
Medieval Science
The Scientific Revolution
The Goals of Science
Psychology
The History of Psychology
Structuralism
Functionalism
Psychodynamics
Gestalt Psychology
Behaviorism
Humanistic Psychology
Cognitive Psychology
Women and Minorities in Psychology
Modern Psychology
The Science of Psychology
The Cost of Neglect 1.4: Science and Pseudoscience
Ethical Principles
Using the Resources of this Text
Exploring the Student Resource Website
Using SPSS for Windows
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
Chapter 2: Research is a Process of Inquiry
The Scientific Process
Basic Assumptions of Science
Observation and Inference: Facts and Constructs
Inductive and Deductive Thinking
Models and Theories in Science
Historical Lesson 2.1: The Wright Brothers as Scientists
Types of Theories
Scientific Models
A Model of the Research Process
Phases of Research
Idea-Generating Phase
Problem-Definition Phase
Procedures-Design Phase
Observation Phase
Data Analysis Phase
Interpretation Phase
Communication Phase
Levels of Constraint
Naturalistic Observation
Case Study Research (Case Study Research)
Correlational Research
Differential Research
Experimental Research
Moving from One Constraint Level to Another
Ethical Principles
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
Chapter 3: The Starting Point: Asking Questions
Asking and Refining Questions
Pursuing Your Personal Interests
Following Up on the Work of Others
Historical Lesson 3.1 Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace
Basic, Applied, and Translational Research
Box 3.1 Translational Research
Refining Questions for Research
Types of Variables in Research
Classifying Variables Based on Their Characteristics
Behavioral Variables
Stimulus Variables
Organismic Variables
Classifying Variables Based on Their Use in Research
Independent and Dependent Variables
Extraneous Variables
Variables and Constants
Validity and the Control of Extraneous Variables
Ethical Principles
Ethical Principles for Human Research
Institutional Review Boards
Ethical Checks
Ethics and Diversity Issues in Research
Ethical Principles for Animal Research
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
Chapter 4: Data and the Nature of Measurement
Measurement
The Cost of Neglect 4.1: Missing Mars
Scales of Measurement
Nominal Scales
Ordinal Scales
Interval Scales
Ratio Scales
Measuring and Manipulating Variables
Measurement Error
Operational Definitions
Evaluating Measures
Reliability
Interrater Reliability
Test-Retest Reliability
Internal Consistency Reliability
Effective Range
Validity
The Need for Objective Measurement
Ethical Principles
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
Chapter 5: Statistical Analysis of Data
Individual Differences
Organizing Data
Frequency Distributions
Nominal and Ordinal Data
Score Data
Graphical Representation of Data
Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Central Tendency
The Cost of Neglect 5.1: Lies, Damn Lies, and Statistics
Measures of Variability
Understanding the Concept 5.1: Degrees of Freedom
Measures of Relationship
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation
Other Correlations
Regression
Reliability Indices
Standard Scores
Statistical Inference
Populations and Samples
The Null Hypothesis
Statistical Decisions and Alpha Levels
Type I and Type II Errors
Inferential Statistics
Testing for Mean Differences
The t-Test
Analysis of Variance
The Power of a Statistical Test
Effect Size
Ethical Principles
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
Chapter 6: Field Research: Naturalistic and Case Study Research
The Challenge of Low-Constraint Research
Examples of Naturalistic Observation
Biology
Historical Lesson 6.1: Naturalistic Research and Evolution
Ethology
Sociology
Psychology
Examples of Case Study Research
Sigmund Freud
E. L. Whitmer
Jean Piaget
Contemporary Case Studies
The Value of Low-Constraint Methods
Conditions for Using Low-Constraint Research
Exploratory Research
Creative Starting Point for Research
Familiarize Oneself with a New Research Area
Demonstrating Feasibility
Testing Generalizability
Understanding the Concept 6.1: The Therapist as Scientist
Information Gained from Low-Constraint Research
Identifying New Information
Negating a General Proposition
Identifying Contingencies
Qualitative Research Methods
Using Low-Constraint Methods
Problem Statements and Research Hypotheses
Making Observations
How to Observe
Unobtrusive Measures
Archival Measures
Sampling of Participants
Sampling of Situations
Sampling of Behaviors
Evaluating and Interpreting Data
Limitations of Low-Constraint Methods
Poor Representativeness
Poor Replicability
Causal Inference and Low-Constraint Research
Limitations of the Observer
Going Beyond the Data
Ethical Principles
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
Chapter 7: Correlational and Differential Methods of Research
Defining Correlational and Differential Research
Correlational Research Methods
Differential Research Methods
Cross-Sectional versus Longitudinal Research
Artifacts and Confounding
Comparing These Methods
When to Use These Methods
Conducting Correlational Research
Problem Statements
Secondary Analyses
Measuring the Variables
Sampling
Analyzing the Data
Interpreting the Correlation
Conducting Differential Research
Problem Statements
Measuring the Variables
Selecting Appropriate Control Groups
Sampling
Analyzing the Data
Interpreting the Data
Limitations of Correlational and Differential Research
Problems in Determining Causation
Confounding Variables
Ethical Principles
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
Chapter 8: Hypothesis Testing, Validity, and Threats to Validity
Hypothesis Testing
Starting Research with an Initial Idea
Statement of the Problem
Operational Definitions
Research Hypothesis
The Contribution of Theory to the Research Hypothesis
Testing the Research Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis
Confounding Variable Hypothesis
Causal Hypothesis
Validity and Threats to Validity
Statistical Validity
Construct Validity
External Validity
Internal Validity
Major Confounding Variables
Maturation
History
Testing
Instrumentation
Regression to the Mean
Selection
Attrition
Diffusion of Treatment
Sequence Effects
Examples of Confounding
Subject and Experimenter Effects
Subject Effects
Experimenter Effects
Ethical Principles
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
Chapter 9: Controls to Reduce Threats to Validity
General Control Procedures
Preparation of the Setting
Response Measurement
Replication
Control over Subject and Experimenter Effects
Single- and Double-Blind Procedures
Automation
Using Objective Measures
Multiple Observers
Understanding the Concept 9.1: Reliable Reliability
Using Deception
Control through Participant Selection and Assignment
Participant Selection
Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Ad Hoc Samples
Participant Assignment
Free Random Assignment
Randomizing within Blocks
Matched Random Assignment
Other Matching Procedures
Advantages of Random Selection and Assignment
Control through Experimental Design
Ethical Principles
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
Chapter 10: Single-Variable, Independent-Groups Designs
Variance
Sources of Variance
Systematic Between-Groups Variance
Nonsystematic Within-Groups Variance
Controlling Variance in Research
Maximizing Experimental Variance
Controlling Extraneous Variance
Minimizing Error Variance
Nonexperimental Approaches
Ex Post Facto Studies
Single-Group, Posttest-Only Studies
Single-Group, Pretest-Posttest Studies
Pretest-Posttest, Natural Control-Group Studies
Experimental Designs
Randomized, Posttest-Only, Control-Group Design
Randomized, Pretest-Posttest, Control-Group Design
Multilevel, Completely Randomized, Between-Subjects Design
Pretest-Manipulation Interaction: A Potential Problem
Variations on Experimental Designs
Analyses of Variance
Understanding the Concept 10.1: Statistical Power
Specific Means Comparisons in ANOVA
Graphing the Data
Ethical Principles
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
Chapter 11: Correlated-Groups and Single-Subject Designs
Within-Subjects Designs
Using Within-Subjects Designs
Sequence Effects
Subtypes of Sequence Effects
Controlling Sequence Effects
Random Order of Presentation
Counterbalancing
Analyzing Within-Subjects Designs
Strengths and Weaknesses of Within-Subjects Designs
Matched-Subjects Designs
Using Matched-Subjects Designs
Why Use Matched-Subjects Designs
Identifying Matching Variables
The Process of Matching
Deciding on the Matching Variables
Analyzing Matched-Subjects Designs
Strengths and Weaknesses of Matched-Subjects Designs
Single-Subject Experimental Designs
Historical Lesson 11.1: Neuropsychological Cases
ABA Reversal Design
Multiple-Baseline Design
Single-Subject, Randomized, Time-Series Design
Replication in Single-Subject Designs
Ethical Principles
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
Chapter 12: Factorial Designs
Factorial Designs
Main Effects and Interactions
Running the Children's Dark-Fears Study
Possible Outcomes of Factorial Designs
Analysis of Variance in Factorial Designs
Variations of Basic Factorial Design
Within-Subjects or Repeated-Measures Factorial
Mixed Designs
Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects Factors
Manipulated and Nonmanipulated Factors
Mixed in Both Ways
ANOVA: A Postscript
Analysis of Covariance
Multivariate Analysis of Variance
Ethical Principles
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
Chapter 13: A Second Look at Field Research: Field Experiments, Program Evaluation, and Survey Research
Conducting Field Research
Reasons for Doing Field Research
Testing External Validity
Studying Effects in the Field
Improving Generalization
Difficulties in Field Research
Flexibility in Research
Quasi-Experimental Designs
Nonequivalent Control-Group Designs
Interrupted Time-Series Designs
Program Evaluation Research
Historical Lesson 13.1: From Head Start to Heads Up
Practical Problems in Program Evaluation Research
Issues of Control
Selecting Appropriate Dependent Measures
Minimizing Bias in Dependent Measures
Control through Research Design in Program Evaluation
Typical Program Evaluation Designs
Randomized Control-Group Design
Nonequivalent Control-Group Design
Single-Group, Time-Series Design
Pretest-Posttest Design
Program Evaluation Research: An Example
Surveys
Types of Surveys
Status Surveys
Survey Research
Steps in Survey Research
Types of Survey Instruments
Developing the Survey Instrument
Sampling Participants
Sampling Considerations
The Cost of Neglect 13.1: Political Polling and Sampling
Sampling Procedures
Sample Size and Confidence Intervals
Survey Research Design
Cross-Sectional Design
Longitudinal Design
Sequential Design
Ethical Principles
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
A final Note to Students
Appendix A: Using the Student Resource Website
Resources Available
Student Resource Website
MySearchLab Site
What to Do If You Have Problems
Getting Help
Summary
Appendix B: Writing a Research Report in APA Publication Style
Structure of a Research Article
Writing the Research Report
Using Levels of Headings to Organize
Sections of a Research Report
Title Page
Abstract
Introduction
Method
Results
Discussion
References
Writing Style
Summary
Appendix C: Conducting Library Research
Using the Library
Library Resources
The Reference Librarian
How Research Materials Are Organized
Primary Sources
Journal Articles
Dissertations
Secondary Sources
Review Articles
Books and Chapters in Books
Annual Reviews
Finding the Relevant Research
Abstracting Services
Psychological Abstracts
ERIC
Subject or Keyword Services
Library Catalogs
Books in Print
Index Medicus
Readers' Guide to Periodic Literature
Literature Citation Indexes
Search Strategies
Searching by Topic
Identifying Keywords
Computer Searches
Searching Backward
Searching Forward
Summary
Appendix D: Selecting Statistical Procedures
Selecting Appropriate Statistical Procedures
An Initial Example
A Decision-Tree Model
Decision-Tree Flowchart
Describe the Study
Identify the Study's Major Characteristics
Select Appropriate Statistics
Secondary Analyses
Post Hoc Analyses
Analyses to Help to Interpret Results
Data Snooping
Caveats and Disclaimers
Understanding the Concept D.1: The Robust Nature of Parametric Statistics
Summary
Exercises
Appendix E: Research Design Checklist
The Research Design Checklist
Initial Problem Definition
Clarity of the Research Hypotheses
Statistical Analysis Procedures
Theoretical Basis and Operational Definitions
Adequacy of the Independent Variable Manipulation
Adequacy of Dependent Measures
Are All Controls in Place?
Participants
Participant Selection
Sample Size
Participant Assignment
Participant Availability
Research Ethics Considerations
Preparation of the Setting
Space and Equipment
Personnel
Adequacy of Participant Preparation, Instruction, and Procedures
Summary
Appendix F: Meta-Analysis
Logic of Meta-Analysis
Literature Reviews
Alpha Levels and Knowledge
Beta Levels and Knowledge
Meta-Analysis and the Problem of Type II Errors
Appendix G: Random Numbers
Appendix H: Answers to Quick-Check Review Questions
Glossary
References
Name Index
Subject Index