Teaching Reading in the 21st Century
International Edition
5th Edition
Published on 6. December 2010
Book
Paperback/Softback
648 pages
978-0-13-707072-5 (ISBN)
Description
Informed by the latest research on topics ranging from phonemic awareness and phonics to teaching comprehension strategies, motivation, and assessment, this text provides the knowledge base, skills, and research-based strategies that you need to guide K-8 students successfully toward literacy for the 21st century-using reading and writing for thinking, problem solving, and communicating. Principal themes include balancing phonemic skills with more holistic approaches; fostering the love of reading; and successfully teaching all students to become able and eager readers.
Motivating Struggling Readers features provide real-life examples of research-based strategies in action that help make reading exciting for all learners.
Motivating Children with Technology features provide access to technological resources related to chapter concepts and explain why a technology-based approach can sometimes be more motivating for students than a traditional approach.
Differentiating Instruction for English Language Learners features provide guidance on how to successfully teach English language learners in a classroom of native speakers.
Motivating Struggling Readers features provide real-life examples of research-based strategies in action that help make reading exciting for all learners.
Motivating Children with Technology features provide access to technological resources related to chapter concepts and explain why a technology-based approach can sometimes be more motivating for students than a traditional approach.
Differentiating Instruction for English Language Learners features provide guidance on how to successfully teach English language learners in a classroom of native speakers.
More details
Edition
5th edition
Language
English
Place of publication
United States
Publishing group
Pearson Education (US)
Target group
Professional and scholarly
Dimensions
Height: 274 mm
Width: 217 mm
Thickness: 21 mm
Weight
1150 gr
ISBN-13
978-0-13-707072-5 (9780137070725)
Copyright in bibliographic data and cover images is held by Nielsen Book Services Limited or by the publishers or by their respective licensors: all rights reserved.
Schweitzer Classification
Other editions
Previous edition
Michael F. Graves | Connie F. Juel | Bonnie B. Graves
Teaching Reading in the 21st Century
Motivating All Learners: United States Edition
Book
12/2010
5th Edition
Pearson
€185.69
Article exhausted; check for reprint
Persons
Michael F. Graves is Professor of Literacy Education, Emeritus at the University of Minnesota and a member of the IRA Reading Hall of Fame. Mike taught in the upper grades, and his research and writing focus on such matters as vocabulary, comprehension, and higher-order thinking. His current major research efforts are with IES-funded research and development projects on teaching a basic vocabulary and on teaching word-learning strategies.
Connie Juel is Professor of Education at Stanford University and a member of the IRA Reading Hall of Fame. Connie taught in the primary grades, and her research and writing focus on such matters as phonemic awareness, phonics, and word study. Her current research centers on the effects of early elementary school instruction and specific interventions on literacy and language growth.
Bonnie B. Graves is a full-time education writer and the author of 15 books for children. Bonnie taught in third and fourth grades, and her major interests are making literature enticing and accessible to beginning and middle-grades learners. In addition to writing, Bonnie currently spends time working with children, teachers, and other educators on children's writing.
Peter Dewitz is an educational consultant and researcher. He has worked with districts across the country to improve reading achievement and brings this real world experience to Teaching Reading in the 21st Century. He has been a professor at the University of Virginia and the University of Toledo where he taught courses on reading comprehension and reading disorders. He writes and researches about comprehension instruction and most recently on the process of evaluating, selecting and using core reading programs.
Connie Juel is Professor of Education at Stanford University and a member of the IRA Reading Hall of Fame. Connie taught in the primary grades, and her research and writing focus on such matters as phonemic awareness, phonics, and word study. Her current research centers on the effects of early elementary school instruction and specific interventions on literacy and language growth.
Bonnie B. Graves is a full-time education writer and the author of 15 books for children. Bonnie taught in third and fourth grades, and her major interests are making literature enticing and accessible to beginning and middle-grades learners. In addition to writing, Bonnie currently spends time working with children, teachers, and other educators on children's writing.
Peter Dewitz is an educational consultant and researcher. He has worked with districts across the country to improve reading achievement and brings this real world experience to Teaching Reading in the 21st Century. He has been a professor at the University of Virginia and the University of Toledo where he taught courses on reading comprehension and reading disorders. He writes and researches about comprehension instruction and most recently on the process of evaluating, selecting and using core reading programs.
Content
CONTENTS
Preface xxvii
Acknowledgments xxxiii
About the Authors xxxv
CHAPTER 1 READING AND LEARNING TO READ
The Reading Process 2
The Cognitive-Constructivist View of Reading 2
In the Classroom 1.1 Using Background Knowledge 3
The Cognitive Orientation 3
Schema 4
Constructivism 5
Reader-Response Theory 6
Sociocultural Theory 7
Reflect and Apply 8
Concepts That Elaborate and Complement the Cognitive-Constructivist View 8
The Interactive Model of Reading 8
Automaticity 9
Fluency 10
Metacognition 11
The Reading Corner Books to Help Build Automaticity and Fluency in Young Readers 12
Reflect and Apply 13
The Reading Proficiency of U.S. Students 13
A Response to Current Criticisms 14
Literacy for Today's and Tomorrow's World 16
In the Classroom 1.2 Developing Present-Day Literacy in the Sixth Grade 17
Reflect and Apply 18
A Literacy Curriculum for Today's and Tomorrow's World 18
Phonemic Awareness and Other Aspects of Emergent Literacy 19
Phonics and Other Word-Recognition Skills 20
Fluency and Matching Students with Appropriate Texts 20
Vocabulary Learning and Instruction 20
Scaffolding Students' Comprehension of Text and Higher-Order Thinking 21
Teaching Comprehension Strategies 21
Encouraging Independent Reading and Reader Response 21
Fostering Higher-Order Thinking and Deep Understanding 22
Building Connections 23
Reflect and Apply 23
An Overview of This Book 23
Chapter-by-Chapter Overview 24
The Components and Organization of the Chapters 24
Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 25
Concluding Remarks 26
Extending Learning 26
Children's Literature 27
CHAPTER 2 READING INSTRUCTION
Instructional Principles 30
Traditional Instructional Principles 30
The Reading Corner Informational Books That Give Students Opportunities to Make Critical Responses 31
Focusing on Academically Relevant Tasks 32
Employing Active Teaching 32
Fostering Active Learning 33
In the Classroom 2.1 Actively Engaging Students in Reading and Responding to a Text 33
Distinguishing Between Instruction and Practice 33
Providing Sufficient and Timely Feedback 34
Teaching for Transfer 34
Reflect and Apply 35
Constructivist and Sociocultural Perspectives on Instruction 35
Scaffolding 36
The Zone of Proximal Development 36
The Gradual Release of Responsibility Model 37
Cognitive Modeling 39
In the Classroom 2.2 Cognitive Modeling 39
Direct Explanation 40
Contextualizing, Reviewing, and Practicing What Is Learned 40
Teaching for Understanding 41
Cooperative Learning 41
Reflect and Apply 42
A Brief History of Reading Instruction in the United States 42
The Colonial Period and the 19th Century 43
The Heyday of Basal Readers 44
The Challenge to Basal Readers: Whole-Language and Literature-Based Approaches 45
Massive Federal Intervention in Reading 47
Reading Instruction at Its Best 48
Reflect and Apply 49
Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 49
Concluding Remarks 51
Extending Learning 52
Children's Literature 53
CHAPTER 3 MOTIVATION AND ENGAGEMENT
Making Motivation a Top Priority 56
The Critical Importance of Success 56
Creating a Literate Environment 58
Modeling 58
Time 58
The Classroom 60
Materials 60
In the Classroom 3.1 Assessing Students' Reading Attitudes and Interests 62
Choice 63
The Reading Corner Books About Food and Families in Many Cultures 65
In the Classroom 3.2 Poetry Browsing to Create Interest 66
Classroom Climate 67
Reflect and Apply 67
The Importance of Positive Attributions 67
Attribution Theory 68
Learned Helplessness 68
The Importance of Appropriate Challenges 69
In the Classroom 3.3 Providing Both Challenges and Supports 69
Concrete Approaches to Motivating Students 71
Ensuring Student Success 71
In the Classroom 3.4 Creating a Book Review File 72
Promoting Academic Values and Goals 72
Fostering Higher-Order Thinking and Deep Understanding 73
Ensuring Active Participation, Using Cooperative Activities, and Including Variety 74
Making Connections to Students' Cultures and Lives Outside of School 75
Praising Students, Rewarding Them, and Helping Them Set Goals 76
Factors That Undermine Motivation 76
Reflect and Apply 77
Nancy Masters, a Superstar at Motivating Students 78
Grouping Students for Instruction 79
In the Classroom 3.5 Primary-Grade Cooperative Learning to Solve Story Problems 82
Reflect and Apply 83
Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 83
Concluding Remarks 84
Extending Learning 86
Children's Literature 87
CHAPTER 4 CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT
By Kathleen M. Wilson and Robert C. Calfee with contributions by Kathleen Clark
Our Perspective on Assessment 428
An Emphasis on Inquiry 428
Three Themes of Assessment 429
Balanced Assessment 430
Teacher-Based Strategies 431
Features of Contemporary Assessment Methods 431
In the Classroom 4.1 The Roots Project 431
The Roots Project and Assessment 432
Some Answers to Our Opening Questions 434
What Does the Teacher Need to Know, Week by Week, and Why? 434
What About Students? 434
What About Parents? 435
What About Other Teachers? 435
What About the Principal? 436
A Final Word on the Roots Project 436
Reflect and Apply 436
Assessment as Inquiry 436
Framing the Problem: What Is the Question? 437
Designing a Plan of Action 440
In the Classroom 4.2 Vocabulary Assessment in the Third Grade 440
Collecting Evidence 443
Observing 443
Discussing and Questioning 446
Interviewing 447
In the Classroom 4.3 The Funnel Approach 447
Student Work Samples: Performances and Portfolios 448
Scoring Rubrics 449
Models for Teacher-Made Tests 452
Analyzing and Summarizing the Data: The Teacher Logbook 454
Interpreting: Making Sense of the Results 457
In the Classroom 4.4 Interpreting Evidence in the Sixth Grade 457
In the Classroom 4.5 Collecting More Evidence 458
Reporting and Decision Making 459
Reflect and Apply 460
Test-Based Strategies 461
Basal Reader Tests 461
Standardized Tests 463
Preparing Students for Standardized Tests 466
In the Classroom 4.6 Using "Simon Says" to Practice Test Taking 468
nReflect and Apply 471
Concluding Remarks 471
Extending Learning 472
Children's Literature 473
CHAPTER 5 DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION AND INTERVENTION
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING TO READ
Learning Disabilities
Environmental Causes
The Matthew Effect
Differentiating Instruction in the General Education Classroom
Response to Intervention
In the Classroom 5.1 Differentiating Word Study Instruction
Differentiating Time, Tasks, and Texts
Planning Small-Group Instruction 434
In the Classroom 5.2 Differentiating Comprehension Instruction
In the Classroom 5.3 Planning for Differentiated Small-Group Instruction
In the Classroom 5.4 A Differentiated Historical Fiction Unit
What Does the Teacher Need to Know, Week by Week, and Why? 434
What About Students? 434
What About Parents? 435
What About Other Teachers? 435
What About the Principal? 436
INTERVENTION FOR STRUGGLING READERS 436
Reflect and Apply 436
Assessment as Inquiry 436
Framing the Problem: What Is the Question? 437
Designing a Plan of Action 440
In the Classroom 4.2 Vocabulary Assessment in the Third Grade 440
Collecting Evidence 443
Observing 443
Discussing and Questioning 446
Interviewing 447
In the Classroom 4.3 The Funnel Approach 447
Student Work Samples: Performances and Portfolios 448
Scoring Rubrics 449
Models for Teacher-Made Tests 452
Analyzing and Summarizing the Data: The Teacher Logbook 454
Interpreting: Making Sense of the Results 457
In the Classroom 4.4 Interpreting Evidence in the Sixth Grade 457
In the Classroom 4.5 Collecting More Evidence 458
Reporting and Decision Making 459
Reflect and Apply 460
Test-Based Strategies 461
Basal Reader Tests 461
Standardized Tests 463
Preparing Students for Standardized Tests 466
In the Classroom 4.6 Using "Simon Says" to Practice Test Taking 468
nReflect and Apply 471
Concluding Remarks 471
Extending Learning 472
Children's Literature 473
CHAPTER 6 EMERGENT LITERACY
Emerging Knowledge About Text Structures 90
In the Classroom 6.1 Using Wordless Picture Books in a Kindergarten Classroom 91
Emerging Knowledge About Word Structures 92
In the Classroom 6.2 Kindergartners and the PWords 93
Phonemic Awareness and Alphabet Recognition 94
What Is Phonemic Awareness? 95
In the Classroom 6.3 Phonemic Awareness (Segmenting and Blending Sounds) 96
Why Do Phonemic Awareness and Alphabet Recognition So Strongly Predict Success in Reading? 96
Reflect and Apply 97
Learning to Identify Words 97
Some Early Understandings About Print 98
In the Classroom 6.4 Using Letter Puppets to Help Children Understand the Connection Between Phonemes and Letters 99
Connecting Letters and Phonemes 100
Linking Letters and Phonemes: The Alphabetic Principle 100
Reflect and Apply 102
Instruction That Facilitates Children's Growing Literacy 102
Creating a Literate Environment 102
Reading Opportunities 103
The Morning Meeting 103
Free "Reading" 104
Selecting Books for Specific Purposes 104
In the Classroom 6.5 Developing Phonemic Awareness 105
Writing Opportunities 106
The Reading Corner Big Books 107
Journals 107
Language-Experience Activities 108
Shared Reading and Writing Experience 108
In the Classroom 6.6 Reading and Writing Rhymes 109
Making Books 109
Mailboxes 110
Play Centers 110
Listening and Speaking Opportunities 110
Reading Aloud 111
Choral Reading 111
Tape Recordings 111
Sing-Alongs 111
A Kindergarten Scenario - 112
By Jonnie Wolskee
Reflect and Apply 117
Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 117
Concluding Remarks 118
Extending Learning 119
Children's Literature 121
CHAPTER 7 WORD RECOGNITION with contributions by Kathleen Clark
The Importance of Recognizing Printed Words 124
Why Listening Is Easier Than Reading 125
Shared Background Knowledge 125
Immediate Feedback 125
Visual Cues from the Speaker 125
More Common Words 125
Contextualized Meaning 125
No Translation Needed 126
Skilled Readers Automatically Recognize Words 126
The Structure of Spoken and Printed Words 127
The Makeup of Spoken and Written English 127
Phonemes: Vowels and Consonants 128
Syllables, Onsets, and Rimes 129
Word Families and Phonograms 130
Morphemes 130
Affixes: Prefixes and Suffixes 130
The Alphabetic Principle 132
The Structure of Printed Words: The Good News 133
Reflect and Apply 134
Our Position on Phonics Instruction and Related Matters 134
Word-Study Instruction 135
Five General Principles of Word-Study Instruction 135
Teaching Children to Recognize Words 137
Getting Started: Sight Words and Word Banks 138
Language Experience 140
Read, Read, Read 140
Teaching Children About Letter-Sound Correspondences 141
Phase 1: Learning the Alphabet, Beginning Word Study, and Initial Blending Instruction 142
The Reading Corner Alphabet Books 142
In the Classroom 7.1 Alphabet Activities 143
In the Classroom 7.2 Work with Onsets (Initial Consonants) 145
In the Classroom 7.3 Working with the Rime atand Some Individual Phonemes 147
In the Classroom 7.4 Steps in Blending 148
Phase 2: Short Vowels, Final Consonants, Consonant Blends, Consonant Digraphs, and Formal Blending Instruction 149
In the Classroom 7.5 Making New Words 150
In the Classroom 7.6 Word-Study Instruction on Consonant Blends 151
In the Classroom 5.7 What First-Graders Should Know 152
Phase 3: Short Vowels, Long-Vowel Patterns, Multisyllabic Words, and Prefixes and Suffixes 153
In the Classroom 7.8 Short-Vowel Work in the First Grade 154
In the Classroom 7.9 Contrasting Short- and Long-Vowel Patterns 155
In the Classroom 7.10 Multisyllabic Words 157
In the Classroom 7.11 Teaching Prefixes and Suffixes 158
Reflect and Apply 158
About Reading a Lot 159
Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 161
Concluding Remarks 162
Extending Learning 162
Children's Literature 163
CLASSROOM PORTRAIT A DAY IN THE LIFE OF JENNA LEBLANC AND HER FIRST-GRADE STUDENTS
CHAPTER 8 FLUENCY
Fluency and Its Importance 172
Reflect and Apply 174
Approaches to Building Fluency 174
Some Generalizations About Fluency Instruction 174
The Original Method of Repeated Reading 175
In the Classroom 8.1 The Original Method of Repeated Reading 176
Simultaneous Repeated Reading 178
Echo Reading 179
Tape-Assisted Repeated Reading 179
In the Classroom 8.2 Tape-Assisted Repeated Reading 180
Partner Reading 180
In the Classroom 8.3 Partner Reading 181
Choral Reading 181
Readers Theater 182
In the Classroom 8.4 Schedule for a Week of Readers Theater 182
Radio Reading 182
In the Classroom 8.5 Plan for a Radio-Reading Session 183
Fluency-Oriented Oral Reading 184
In the Classroom 8.6 Fluency-Oriented Oral Reading 184
Commercial Fluency Programs 185
Read Naturally Masters Edition 185
Renaissance Learning's Fluent Reader 186
Wide Reading in Appropriate Texts 186
Reflect and Apply 187
Assessing Readers' Fluency 187
In the Classroom 8.7 Procedures for Measuring Rate and Accuracy 188
The Reading Corner Books to Build Fluency in Developing Readers 191
Choosing Among the Approaches to Fluency 192
Matching Students and Texts 192
Assessing Students' Reading Proficiency and Motivation 193
In the Classroom 8.8 Constructing an Informal Reading Inventory 193
Assessing Text Difficulty and Accessibility 195
In the Classroom 8.9 Using the Fry Readability Formula 196
Your Personal and Professional Knowledge 198
Reflect and Apply 199
Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 200
Concluding Remarks 201
Extending Learning 202
Children's Literature 203
CHAPTER 9 VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT
The Vocabulary-Learning Task 206
Frequent, Extensive, and Varied Language Experiences 207
In the Classroom 9.1 Interactive Oral Reading as Described by Biemiller 209
Reflect and Apply 210
Teaching Individual Words 210
Word-Learning Tasks 210
Learning a Basic Vocabulary 210
Learning to Read Known Words 210
Learning New Words That Represent Known Concepts 211
Learning New Words That Represent New Concepts 211
Clarifying and Enriching the Meanings of Known Words 212
Identifying Vocabulary to Teach 212
Methods of Teaching Individual Words 213
Learning a Basic Vocabulary 213
Learning to Read Known Words 215
Learning New Words That Represent Known Concepts 215
In the Classroom 9.2 Two Ways to Introduce New Words Representing Known Concepts 216
Learning New Words That Represent New Concepts 217
In the Classroom 9.3 Introducing New Words That Represent New Concepts 217
Clarifying and Enriching the Meanings of Known Words 217
In the Classroom 9.4 Semantic Mapping and Semantic Feature Analysis 218
Reflect and Apply 220
Teaching Word-Learning Strategies 220
Using Context Clues 220
In the Classroom 9.5 Balanced Strategies Instruction 221
In the Classroom 9.6 Teaching Context Clues 222
Using Word Parts 222
In the Classroom 9.7 Teaching Prefixes 224
Using the Dictionary 224
Reflect and Apply 226
Fostering Word Consciousness 226
The Reading Corner Books About Words and Word Games 227
Modeling and Encouraging Adept Diction 227
Providing Intensive and Expressive Instruction 229
Reflect and Apply 230
Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 230
Concluding Remarks 232
Extending Learning 232
Children's Literature 233
CHAPTER 10 SCAFFOLDING STUDENTS' COMPREHENSION OF TEXT
Instructional Frameworks and Procedures 236
The Roles of Purpose, Selection, and Reader in Planning a Successful Reading Experience 236
Purpose 237
The Function of Purposes 237
Matching Reading Purposes with the Text and the Reader 237
Selection 238
Types of Selections 238
Reader 240
Reflect and Apply 240
Five Frameworks for Scaffolding Students' Reading 241
Directed Reading Activity 241
Directed Reading-Thinking Activity 242
In the Classroom 10.1 Phase I of the DR-TA 243
Scaffolded Reading Experience 243
Prereading Activities 244
In the Classroom 10.2 Prereading Activity Relating the Reading to Students' Lives 246
Reflect and Apply 247
During-Reading Activities 247
Reflect and Apply 249
Postreading Activities 249
In the Classroom 10.3 Sample Postreading Questions for Various Types of Thinking 250
In the Classroom 10.4 Students' Postreading Dramatizations 252
The Reading Corner Books That Invite Musical Connections 253
Reflect and Apply 255
Comprehensive SREs 256
Guided Reading 256
Four Blocks 257
Individual Procedures for Fostering Comprehension of Text 258
Procedures for Narratives 259
Story Grammars 259
Story Maps 260
Procedures for Expository Texts 261
K-W-L 261
In the Classroom 10.5 Using K-W-L 262
Reading Guides 263
Procedures Appropriate for All Types of Text 264
Discussion Web 264
Semantic Webbing and Weaving 264
Reflect and Apply 266
Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 266
Concluding Remarks 268
Extending Learning 268
Children's Literature 269
CHAPTER 11 TEACHING COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES
What Are Comprehension Strategies? 272
Characteristics of Comprehension Strategies 273
Strategies Are Conscious Efforts 273
Strategies Are Flexible 273
Strategies Should Be Applied Only When Appropriate 273
Strategies Are Widely Applicable 273
Strategies Can Be Overt or Covert 274
Reflect and Apply 274
Key Comprehension Strategies 274
Establishing a Purpose for Reading 275
Using Prior Knowledge 275
Asking and Answering Questions 275
Making Inferences 276
Determining What Is Important 276
Summarizing 277
Dealing with Graphic Information 278
Imaging and Creating Graphic Representations 278
In the Classroom 11.1 Practicing Imaging with First-Graders 278
Being Metacognitive 279
In the Classroom 11.2 Fostering Metacognition 280
Reflect and Apply 281
The Reading Corner Books That Illustrate Strategic Behavior 282
A Powerful Approach to Teaching Strategies 282
The First Day's Instruction on Determining What Is Important 284
Motivation and Interest Building 284
Teacher Explanation 284
Teacher Modeling 285
Large-Group Student Participation and Teacher Mediation 285
The Second Day's Instruction on Determining What Is Important 287
More Large-Group Student Participation and Teacher Mediation 287
Cooperative Group Work 287
Sharing Group Work and Teacher Response and Mediation 287
Overview of a Unit 288
The Constructive Nature of Good Strategy Instruction 288
Transfer, Review, and Integration Activities 288
Reflect and Apply 290
Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 291
Concluding Remarks 291
Extending Learning 292
Children's Literature 293
CHAPTER 12 ENCOURAGING INDEPENDENT READING AND READER RESPONSE
Independent Reading 296
Providing Time to Read 296
Providing a Rich Array of Reading Material, the Incentive to Read, and a Place to Read 297
In the Classroom 12.1 Guidelines for Choosing Books for Your Classroom Library 297
Assisting Students in Selecting Material 298
In the Classroom 12.2 Guidelines for Helping Students Select Reading Material 298
Establishing and Maintaining an Independent Reading Program 298
Encouraging Out-of-School Reading 299
Responding to Literature 300
Reader Response 300
In the Classroom 12.3 Students' Artistic Responses After Reading About Animals 301
Literature Circles 302
In the Classroom 12.4 Establishing Literature Circles in a Fourth-Grade Classroom 302
Three Frameworks That Promote Literature and Reader Response 303
Book Club and Book Club Plus 304
Reading Workshop 306
In the Classroom 12.5 A Glimpse into a Reading Workshop in Action 308
Reflect and Apply 309
Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 309
In the Classroom 12.6 Encouraging Reluctant Readers 310
Concluding Remarks 311
Extending Learning 311
Children's Literature 312
CLASSROOM PORTRAIT AD DAY IN THE LIFE OF DOLORES PUENTE AND HER THIRD-AND FOURTH-GRADE STUDENTS
CHAPTER 13 WRITING AND READING
The Reading-Writing Connection 358
A Positive Reading-Writing Environment 358
The Intellectual Climate 359
The Physical Environment 360
In the Classroom 13.1 Guidelines for Creating a Positive Writing Environment 360
The Process Approach to Writing 361
Informal Writing 364
nReflect and Apply 365
Some Writing Forms and Purposes 365
Writing to Learn and to Understand 366
Note Taking 366
In the Classroom 13.2 Sample Lesson on Note Taking 367
Brainstorming and Quickwriting 367
Semantic Mapping, the Venn Diagram, and K-W-L 368
Journals 370
In the Classroom 13.3 Introducing the Response Journal to Primary-Grade Students 372
In the Classroom 13.4 Guidelines for Journal Writing 375
Reflect and Apply 375
Writing to Communicate 375
Letters 376
In the Classroom 13.5 Writing Letters to or from People Students Read About 376
Biographies and Autobiographies 377
Reports 378
The Reading Corner Books by Exemplary Nonfiction Children's Book Authors 379
Imaginative Writing 380
In the Classroom 13.6 Writing Imaginative Mathematics Scenarios and Questions 380
Fiction 382
Poetry 382
In the Classroom 13.7 Writing Poems Around a Theme 383
Reflect and Apply 383
The Writing Workshop 383
Responding to Students' Writing 385
Publishing and Celebrating Writing 387
Reflect and Apply 388
Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 388
In the Classroom 12.8 Activities to Challenge Skillful Writers 389
Concluding Remarks 390
Extending Learning 390
Children's Literature 391
CHAPTER 14 READING INSTRUCTION FOR ENGLISH-LANGUAGE LEARNERS
Learning to Read English as a Second Language in the UnIted States 396
Fostering Reading Achievement in English-Language Learners 396
In the Classroom 14.1 Traditional Instructional Principles 396
In the Classroom 14.2 Instructional Principles Motivated by Constructivist and Sociocultural Theories 397
The U.S. Landscape 397
Some Challenges of Learning to Read in a Second Language 399
Challenges Faced by English-Language Learners 399
Challenges Faced by Teachers 401
What Light Does Research Shed on These Challenges? 402
The Importance of Language Knowledge 403
The Importance of Literacy in the First Language 404
Cross-Language Influences 405
Cross-Cultural Influences 405
Reflect and Apply 406
Instructional Principles 406
Delpit's Principles for Working with Poor Urban Children 406
Demand Critical Thinking 407
Ensure Access to the Basic Skills, Conventions, and Strategies Essential to Success in U.S. Education 407
Empower Students to Challenge Racist Views of Their Competence and Worthiness 408
In the Classroom 14.3 Using the Shared Reading Experience in a Sixth-Grade ESL Class 408
Recognize and Build on Strengths 409
Use Familiar Metaphors and Experiences from the Children's World 409
Create a Sense of Family and Caring 409
Monitor and Assess Needs, and Then Address Them with a Wealth of Diverse Strategies 410
Honor and Respect Children's Home Cultures 410
Reflect and Apply 411
Kamil and Bernhardt's Techniques for Working with English-Language Learners in Typical Classrooms 411
Take Advantage of the 20 Percent Rule 411
Give English-Language Learners and Yourself Plenty of Time 412
In the Classroom 14.4 Summarizing Part of a Selection 413
Use the Rosetta Stone Technique 414
Involve Parents, Siblings, and Other Speakers of the Children's Languages 415
Use All the Available People Resources 416
In Assessing Students, Give Them the Freedom to Choose the Language in Which to Respond 417
The Reading Corner Books Available in Bilingual Formats 418
Use Informational Texts as a Significant Part of Instruction 419
Use Alternative Assessment Strategies 420
Additional Suggestions for Working with English-Language Learners 420
In the Classroom 14.5 Gersten and Baker's Suggestions for Working with English-Language Learners 420
In the Classroom 14.6 Jimenez's Recommendations for Working with Latino and Latina Students 421
In the Classroom 14.7 Short and Echevarria's SIOP Model 422
In the Classroom 14.8 AERA's Recommendations 422
Reflect and Apply 423
Concluding Remarks 423
Extending Learning 424
Children's Literature 425
CLASSROOM PORTRAIT A DAY IN THE LIFE OF DAVID CARBERRY AND HIS FIFTH - AND SIXTH-GRADE STUDENTS
References 485
Photo Credits 503
Name Index 505
Subject Index 515
Preface xxvii
Acknowledgments xxxiii
About the Authors xxxv
CHAPTER 1 READING AND LEARNING TO READ
The Reading Process 2
The Cognitive-Constructivist View of Reading 2
In the Classroom 1.1 Using Background Knowledge 3
The Cognitive Orientation 3
Schema 4
Constructivism 5
Reader-Response Theory 6
Sociocultural Theory 7
Reflect and Apply 8
Concepts That Elaborate and Complement the Cognitive-Constructivist View 8
The Interactive Model of Reading 8
Automaticity 9
Fluency 10
Metacognition 11
The Reading Corner Books to Help Build Automaticity and Fluency in Young Readers 12
Reflect and Apply 13
The Reading Proficiency of U.S. Students 13
A Response to Current Criticisms 14
Literacy for Today's and Tomorrow's World 16
In the Classroom 1.2 Developing Present-Day Literacy in the Sixth Grade 17
Reflect and Apply 18
A Literacy Curriculum for Today's and Tomorrow's World 18
Phonemic Awareness and Other Aspects of Emergent Literacy 19
Phonics and Other Word-Recognition Skills 20
Fluency and Matching Students with Appropriate Texts 20
Vocabulary Learning and Instruction 20
Scaffolding Students' Comprehension of Text and Higher-Order Thinking 21
Teaching Comprehension Strategies 21
Encouraging Independent Reading and Reader Response 21
Fostering Higher-Order Thinking and Deep Understanding 22
Building Connections 23
Reflect and Apply 23
An Overview of This Book 23
Chapter-by-Chapter Overview 24
The Components and Organization of the Chapters 24
Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 25
Concluding Remarks 26
Extending Learning 26
Children's Literature 27
CHAPTER 2 READING INSTRUCTION
Instructional Principles 30
Traditional Instructional Principles 30
The Reading Corner Informational Books That Give Students Opportunities to Make Critical Responses 31
Focusing on Academically Relevant Tasks 32
Employing Active Teaching 32
Fostering Active Learning 33
In the Classroom 2.1 Actively Engaging Students in Reading and Responding to a Text 33
Distinguishing Between Instruction and Practice 33
Providing Sufficient and Timely Feedback 34
Teaching for Transfer 34
Reflect and Apply 35
Constructivist and Sociocultural Perspectives on Instruction 35
Scaffolding 36
The Zone of Proximal Development 36
The Gradual Release of Responsibility Model 37
Cognitive Modeling 39
In the Classroom 2.2 Cognitive Modeling 39
Direct Explanation 40
Contextualizing, Reviewing, and Practicing What Is Learned 40
Teaching for Understanding 41
Cooperative Learning 41
Reflect and Apply 42
A Brief History of Reading Instruction in the United States 42
The Colonial Period and the 19th Century 43
The Heyday of Basal Readers 44
The Challenge to Basal Readers: Whole-Language and Literature-Based Approaches 45
Massive Federal Intervention in Reading 47
Reading Instruction at Its Best 48
Reflect and Apply 49
Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 49
Concluding Remarks 51
Extending Learning 52
Children's Literature 53
CHAPTER 3 MOTIVATION AND ENGAGEMENT
Making Motivation a Top Priority 56
The Critical Importance of Success 56
Creating a Literate Environment 58
Modeling 58
Time 58
The Classroom 60
Materials 60
In the Classroom 3.1 Assessing Students' Reading Attitudes and Interests 62
Choice 63
The Reading Corner Books About Food and Families in Many Cultures 65
In the Classroom 3.2 Poetry Browsing to Create Interest 66
Classroom Climate 67
Reflect and Apply 67
The Importance of Positive Attributions 67
Attribution Theory 68
Learned Helplessness 68
The Importance of Appropriate Challenges 69
In the Classroom 3.3 Providing Both Challenges and Supports 69
Concrete Approaches to Motivating Students 71
Ensuring Student Success 71
In the Classroom 3.4 Creating a Book Review File 72
Promoting Academic Values and Goals 72
Fostering Higher-Order Thinking and Deep Understanding 73
Ensuring Active Participation, Using Cooperative Activities, and Including Variety 74
Making Connections to Students' Cultures and Lives Outside of School 75
Praising Students, Rewarding Them, and Helping Them Set Goals 76
Factors That Undermine Motivation 76
Reflect and Apply 77
Nancy Masters, a Superstar at Motivating Students 78
Grouping Students for Instruction 79
In the Classroom 3.5 Primary-Grade Cooperative Learning to Solve Story Problems 82
Reflect and Apply 83
Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 83
Concluding Remarks 84
Extending Learning 86
Children's Literature 87
CHAPTER 4 CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT
By Kathleen M. Wilson and Robert C. Calfee with contributions by Kathleen Clark
Our Perspective on Assessment 428
An Emphasis on Inquiry 428
Three Themes of Assessment 429
Balanced Assessment 430
Teacher-Based Strategies 431
Features of Contemporary Assessment Methods 431
In the Classroom 4.1 The Roots Project 431
The Roots Project and Assessment 432
Some Answers to Our Opening Questions 434
What Does the Teacher Need to Know, Week by Week, and Why? 434
What About Students? 434
What About Parents? 435
What About Other Teachers? 435
What About the Principal? 436
A Final Word on the Roots Project 436
Reflect and Apply 436
Assessment as Inquiry 436
Framing the Problem: What Is the Question? 437
Designing a Plan of Action 440
In the Classroom 4.2 Vocabulary Assessment in the Third Grade 440
Collecting Evidence 443
Observing 443
Discussing and Questioning 446
Interviewing 447
In the Classroom 4.3 The Funnel Approach 447
Student Work Samples: Performances and Portfolios 448
Scoring Rubrics 449
Models for Teacher-Made Tests 452
Analyzing and Summarizing the Data: The Teacher Logbook 454
Interpreting: Making Sense of the Results 457
In the Classroom 4.4 Interpreting Evidence in the Sixth Grade 457
In the Classroom 4.5 Collecting More Evidence 458
Reporting and Decision Making 459
Reflect and Apply 460
Test-Based Strategies 461
Basal Reader Tests 461
Standardized Tests 463
Preparing Students for Standardized Tests 466
In the Classroom 4.6 Using "Simon Says" to Practice Test Taking 468
nReflect and Apply 471
Concluding Remarks 471
Extending Learning 472
Children's Literature 473
CHAPTER 5 DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION AND INTERVENTION
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING TO READ
Learning Disabilities
Environmental Causes
The Matthew Effect
Differentiating Instruction in the General Education Classroom
Response to Intervention
In the Classroom 5.1 Differentiating Word Study Instruction
Differentiating Time, Tasks, and Texts
Planning Small-Group Instruction 434
In the Classroom 5.2 Differentiating Comprehension Instruction
In the Classroom 5.3 Planning for Differentiated Small-Group Instruction
In the Classroom 5.4 A Differentiated Historical Fiction Unit
What Does the Teacher Need to Know, Week by Week, and Why? 434
What About Students? 434
What About Parents? 435
What About Other Teachers? 435
What About the Principal? 436
INTERVENTION FOR STRUGGLING READERS 436
Reflect and Apply 436
Assessment as Inquiry 436
Framing the Problem: What Is the Question? 437
Designing a Plan of Action 440
In the Classroom 4.2 Vocabulary Assessment in the Third Grade 440
Collecting Evidence 443
Observing 443
Discussing and Questioning 446
Interviewing 447
In the Classroom 4.3 The Funnel Approach 447
Student Work Samples: Performances and Portfolios 448
Scoring Rubrics 449
Models for Teacher-Made Tests 452
Analyzing and Summarizing the Data: The Teacher Logbook 454
Interpreting: Making Sense of the Results 457
In the Classroom 4.4 Interpreting Evidence in the Sixth Grade 457
In the Classroom 4.5 Collecting More Evidence 458
Reporting and Decision Making 459
Reflect and Apply 460
Test-Based Strategies 461
Basal Reader Tests 461
Standardized Tests 463
Preparing Students for Standardized Tests 466
In the Classroom 4.6 Using "Simon Says" to Practice Test Taking 468
nReflect and Apply 471
Concluding Remarks 471
Extending Learning 472
Children's Literature 473
CHAPTER 6 EMERGENT LITERACY
Emerging Knowledge About Text Structures 90
In the Classroom 6.1 Using Wordless Picture Books in a Kindergarten Classroom 91
Emerging Knowledge About Word Structures 92
In the Classroom 6.2 Kindergartners and the PWords 93
Phonemic Awareness and Alphabet Recognition 94
What Is Phonemic Awareness? 95
In the Classroom 6.3 Phonemic Awareness (Segmenting and Blending Sounds) 96
Why Do Phonemic Awareness and Alphabet Recognition So Strongly Predict Success in Reading? 96
Reflect and Apply 97
Learning to Identify Words 97
Some Early Understandings About Print 98
In the Classroom 6.4 Using Letter Puppets to Help Children Understand the Connection Between Phonemes and Letters 99
Connecting Letters and Phonemes 100
Linking Letters and Phonemes: The Alphabetic Principle 100
Reflect and Apply 102
Instruction That Facilitates Children's Growing Literacy 102
Creating a Literate Environment 102
Reading Opportunities 103
The Morning Meeting 103
Free "Reading" 104
Selecting Books for Specific Purposes 104
In the Classroom 6.5 Developing Phonemic Awareness 105
Writing Opportunities 106
The Reading Corner Big Books 107
Journals 107
Language-Experience Activities 108
Shared Reading and Writing Experience 108
In the Classroom 6.6 Reading and Writing Rhymes 109
Making Books 109
Mailboxes 110
Play Centers 110
Listening and Speaking Opportunities 110
Reading Aloud 111
Choral Reading 111
Tape Recordings 111
Sing-Alongs 111
A Kindergarten Scenario - 112
By Jonnie Wolskee
Reflect and Apply 117
Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 117
Concluding Remarks 118
Extending Learning 119
Children's Literature 121
CHAPTER 7 WORD RECOGNITION with contributions by Kathleen Clark
The Importance of Recognizing Printed Words 124
Why Listening Is Easier Than Reading 125
Shared Background Knowledge 125
Immediate Feedback 125
Visual Cues from the Speaker 125
More Common Words 125
Contextualized Meaning 125
No Translation Needed 126
Skilled Readers Automatically Recognize Words 126
The Structure of Spoken and Printed Words 127
The Makeup of Spoken and Written English 127
Phonemes: Vowels and Consonants 128
Syllables, Onsets, and Rimes 129
Word Families and Phonograms 130
Morphemes 130
Affixes: Prefixes and Suffixes 130
The Alphabetic Principle 132
The Structure of Printed Words: The Good News 133
Reflect and Apply 134
Our Position on Phonics Instruction and Related Matters 134
Word-Study Instruction 135
Five General Principles of Word-Study Instruction 135
Teaching Children to Recognize Words 137
Getting Started: Sight Words and Word Banks 138
Language Experience 140
Read, Read, Read 140
Teaching Children About Letter-Sound Correspondences 141
Phase 1: Learning the Alphabet, Beginning Word Study, and Initial Blending Instruction 142
The Reading Corner Alphabet Books 142
In the Classroom 7.1 Alphabet Activities 143
In the Classroom 7.2 Work with Onsets (Initial Consonants) 145
In the Classroom 7.3 Working with the Rime atand Some Individual Phonemes 147
In the Classroom 7.4 Steps in Blending 148
Phase 2: Short Vowels, Final Consonants, Consonant Blends, Consonant Digraphs, and Formal Blending Instruction 149
In the Classroom 7.5 Making New Words 150
In the Classroom 7.6 Word-Study Instruction on Consonant Blends 151
In the Classroom 5.7 What First-Graders Should Know 152
Phase 3: Short Vowels, Long-Vowel Patterns, Multisyllabic Words, and Prefixes and Suffixes 153
In the Classroom 7.8 Short-Vowel Work in the First Grade 154
In the Classroom 7.9 Contrasting Short- and Long-Vowel Patterns 155
In the Classroom 7.10 Multisyllabic Words 157
In the Classroom 7.11 Teaching Prefixes and Suffixes 158
Reflect and Apply 158
About Reading a Lot 159
Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 161
Concluding Remarks 162
Extending Learning 162
Children's Literature 163
CLASSROOM PORTRAIT A DAY IN THE LIFE OF JENNA LEBLANC AND HER FIRST-GRADE STUDENTS
CHAPTER 8 FLUENCY
Fluency and Its Importance 172
Reflect and Apply 174
Approaches to Building Fluency 174
Some Generalizations About Fluency Instruction 174
The Original Method of Repeated Reading 175
In the Classroom 8.1 The Original Method of Repeated Reading 176
Simultaneous Repeated Reading 178
Echo Reading 179
Tape-Assisted Repeated Reading 179
In the Classroom 8.2 Tape-Assisted Repeated Reading 180
Partner Reading 180
In the Classroom 8.3 Partner Reading 181
Choral Reading 181
Readers Theater 182
In the Classroom 8.4 Schedule for a Week of Readers Theater 182
Radio Reading 182
In the Classroom 8.5 Plan for a Radio-Reading Session 183
Fluency-Oriented Oral Reading 184
In the Classroom 8.6 Fluency-Oriented Oral Reading 184
Commercial Fluency Programs 185
Read Naturally Masters Edition 185
Renaissance Learning's Fluent Reader 186
Wide Reading in Appropriate Texts 186
Reflect and Apply 187
Assessing Readers' Fluency 187
In the Classroom 8.7 Procedures for Measuring Rate and Accuracy 188
The Reading Corner Books to Build Fluency in Developing Readers 191
Choosing Among the Approaches to Fluency 192
Matching Students and Texts 192
Assessing Students' Reading Proficiency and Motivation 193
In the Classroom 8.8 Constructing an Informal Reading Inventory 193
Assessing Text Difficulty and Accessibility 195
In the Classroom 8.9 Using the Fry Readability Formula 196
Your Personal and Professional Knowledge 198
Reflect and Apply 199
Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 200
Concluding Remarks 201
Extending Learning 202
Children's Literature 203
CHAPTER 9 VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT
The Vocabulary-Learning Task 206
Frequent, Extensive, and Varied Language Experiences 207
In the Classroom 9.1 Interactive Oral Reading as Described by Biemiller 209
Reflect and Apply 210
Teaching Individual Words 210
Word-Learning Tasks 210
Learning a Basic Vocabulary 210
Learning to Read Known Words 210
Learning New Words That Represent Known Concepts 211
Learning New Words That Represent New Concepts 211
Clarifying and Enriching the Meanings of Known Words 212
Identifying Vocabulary to Teach 212
Methods of Teaching Individual Words 213
Learning a Basic Vocabulary 213
Learning to Read Known Words 215
Learning New Words That Represent Known Concepts 215
In the Classroom 9.2 Two Ways to Introduce New Words Representing Known Concepts 216
Learning New Words That Represent New Concepts 217
In the Classroom 9.3 Introducing New Words That Represent New Concepts 217
Clarifying and Enriching the Meanings of Known Words 217
In the Classroom 9.4 Semantic Mapping and Semantic Feature Analysis 218
Reflect and Apply 220
Teaching Word-Learning Strategies 220
Using Context Clues 220
In the Classroom 9.5 Balanced Strategies Instruction 221
In the Classroom 9.6 Teaching Context Clues 222
Using Word Parts 222
In the Classroom 9.7 Teaching Prefixes 224
Using the Dictionary 224
Reflect and Apply 226
Fostering Word Consciousness 226
The Reading Corner Books About Words and Word Games 227
Modeling and Encouraging Adept Diction 227
Providing Intensive and Expressive Instruction 229
Reflect and Apply 230
Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 230
Concluding Remarks 232
Extending Learning 232
Children's Literature 233
CHAPTER 10 SCAFFOLDING STUDENTS' COMPREHENSION OF TEXT
Instructional Frameworks and Procedures 236
The Roles of Purpose, Selection, and Reader in Planning a Successful Reading Experience 236
Purpose 237
The Function of Purposes 237
Matching Reading Purposes with the Text and the Reader 237
Selection 238
Types of Selections 238
Reader 240
Reflect and Apply 240
Five Frameworks for Scaffolding Students' Reading 241
Directed Reading Activity 241
Directed Reading-Thinking Activity 242
In the Classroom 10.1 Phase I of the DR-TA 243
Scaffolded Reading Experience 243
Prereading Activities 244
In the Classroom 10.2 Prereading Activity Relating the Reading to Students' Lives 246
Reflect and Apply 247
During-Reading Activities 247
Reflect and Apply 249
Postreading Activities 249
In the Classroom 10.3 Sample Postreading Questions for Various Types of Thinking 250
In the Classroom 10.4 Students' Postreading Dramatizations 252
The Reading Corner Books That Invite Musical Connections 253
Reflect and Apply 255
Comprehensive SREs 256
Guided Reading 256
Four Blocks 257
Individual Procedures for Fostering Comprehension of Text 258
Procedures for Narratives 259
Story Grammars 259
Story Maps 260
Procedures for Expository Texts 261
K-W-L 261
In the Classroom 10.5 Using K-W-L 262
Reading Guides 263
Procedures Appropriate for All Types of Text 264
Discussion Web 264
Semantic Webbing and Weaving 264
Reflect and Apply 266
Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 266
Concluding Remarks 268
Extending Learning 268
Children's Literature 269
CHAPTER 11 TEACHING COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES
What Are Comprehension Strategies? 272
Characteristics of Comprehension Strategies 273
Strategies Are Conscious Efforts 273
Strategies Are Flexible 273
Strategies Should Be Applied Only When Appropriate 273
Strategies Are Widely Applicable 273
Strategies Can Be Overt or Covert 274
Reflect and Apply 274
Key Comprehension Strategies 274
Establishing a Purpose for Reading 275
Using Prior Knowledge 275
Asking and Answering Questions 275
Making Inferences 276
Determining What Is Important 276
Summarizing 277
Dealing with Graphic Information 278
Imaging and Creating Graphic Representations 278
In the Classroom 11.1 Practicing Imaging with First-Graders 278
Being Metacognitive 279
In the Classroom 11.2 Fostering Metacognition 280
Reflect and Apply 281
The Reading Corner Books That Illustrate Strategic Behavior 282
A Powerful Approach to Teaching Strategies 282
The First Day's Instruction on Determining What Is Important 284
Motivation and Interest Building 284
Teacher Explanation 284
Teacher Modeling 285
Large-Group Student Participation and Teacher Mediation 285
The Second Day's Instruction on Determining What Is Important 287
More Large-Group Student Participation and Teacher Mediation 287
Cooperative Group Work 287
Sharing Group Work and Teacher Response and Mediation 287
Overview of a Unit 288
The Constructive Nature of Good Strategy Instruction 288
Transfer, Review, and Integration Activities 288
Reflect and Apply 290
Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 291
Concluding Remarks 291
Extending Learning 292
Children's Literature 293
CHAPTER 12 ENCOURAGING INDEPENDENT READING AND READER RESPONSE
Independent Reading 296
Providing Time to Read 296
Providing a Rich Array of Reading Material, the Incentive to Read, and a Place to Read 297
In the Classroom 12.1 Guidelines for Choosing Books for Your Classroom Library 297
Assisting Students in Selecting Material 298
In the Classroom 12.2 Guidelines for Helping Students Select Reading Material 298
Establishing and Maintaining an Independent Reading Program 298
Encouraging Out-of-School Reading 299
Responding to Literature 300
Reader Response 300
In the Classroom 12.3 Students' Artistic Responses After Reading About Animals 301
Literature Circles 302
In the Classroom 12.4 Establishing Literature Circles in a Fourth-Grade Classroom 302
Three Frameworks That Promote Literature and Reader Response 303
Book Club and Book Club Plus 304
Reading Workshop 306
In the Classroom 12.5 A Glimpse into a Reading Workshop in Action 308
Reflect and Apply 309
Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 309
In the Classroom 12.6 Encouraging Reluctant Readers 310
Concluding Remarks 311
Extending Learning 311
Children's Literature 312
CLASSROOM PORTRAIT AD DAY IN THE LIFE OF DOLORES PUENTE AND HER THIRD-AND FOURTH-GRADE STUDENTS
CHAPTER 13 WRITING AND READING
The Reading-Writing Connection 358
A Positive Reading-Writing Environment 358
The Intellectual Climate 359
The Physical Environment 360
In the Classroom 13.1 Guidelines for Creating a Positive Writing Environment 360
The Process Approach to Writing 361
Informal Writing 364
nReflect and Apply 365
Some Writing Forms and Purposes 365
Writing to Learn and to Understand 366
Note Taking 366
In the Classroom 13.2 Sample Lesson on Note Taking 367
Brainstorming and Quickwriting 367
Semantic Mapping, the Venn Diagram, and K-W-L 368
Journals 370
In the Classroom 13.3 Introducing the Response Journal to Primary-Grade Students 372
In the Classroom 13.4 Guidelines for Journal Writing 375
Reflect and Apply 375
Writing to Communicate 375
Letters 376
In the Classroom 13.5 Writing Letters to or from People Students Read About 376
Biographies and Autobiographies 377
Reports 378
The Reading Corner Books by Exemplary Nonfiction Children's Book Authors 379
Imaginative Writing 380
In the Classroom 13.6 Writing Imaginative Mathematics Scenarios and Questions 380
Fiction 382
Poetry 382
In the Classroom 13.7 Writing Poems Around a Theme 383
Reflect and Apply 383
The Writing Workshop 383
Responding to Students' Writing 385
Publishing and Celebrating Writing 387
Reflect and Apply 388
Strengths and Challenges of Diversity 388
In the Classroom 12.8 Activities to Challenge Skillful Writers 389
Concluding Remarks 390
Extending Learning 390
Children's Literature 391
CHAPTER 14 READING INSTRUCTION FOR ENGLISH-LANGUAGE LEARNERS
Learning to Read English as a Second Language in the UnIted States 396
Fostering Reading Achievement in English-Language Learners 396
In the Classroom 14.1 Traditional Instructional Principles 396
In the Classroom 14.2 Instructional Principles Motivated by Constructivist and Sociocultural Theories 397
The U.S. Landscape 397
Some Challenges of Learning to Read in a Second Language 399
Challenges Faced by English-Language Learners 399
Challenges Faced by Teachers 401
What Light Does Research Shed on These Challenges? 402
The Importance of Language Knowledge 403
The Importance of Literacy in the First Language 404
Cross-Language Influences 405
Cross-Cultural Influences 405
Reflect and Apply 406
Instructional Principles 406
Delpit's Principles for Working with Poor Urban Children 406
Demand Critical Thinking 407
Ensure Access to the Basic Skills, Conventions, and Strategies Essential to Success in U.S. Education 407
Empower Students to Challenge Racist Views of Their Competence and Worthiness 408
In the Classroom 14.3 Using the Shared Reading Experience in a Sixth-Grade ESL Class 408
Recognize and Build on Strengths 409
Use Familiar Metaphors and Experiences from the Children's World 409
Create a Sense of Family and Caring 409
Monitor and Assess Needs, and Then Address Them with a Wealth of Diverse Strategies 410
Honor and Respect Children's Home Cultures 410
Reflect and Apply 411
Kamil and Bernhardt's Techniques for Working with English-Language Learners in Typical Classrooms 411
Take Advantage of the 20 Percent Rule 411
Give English-Language Learners and Yourself Plenty of Time 412
In the Classroom 14.4 Summarizing Part of a Selection 413
Use the Rosetta Stone Technique 414
Involve Parents, Siblings, and Other Speakers of the Children's Languages 415
Use All the Available People Resources 416
In Assessing Students, Give Them the Freedom to Choose the Language in Which to Respond 417
The Reading Corner Books Available in Bilingual Formats 418
Use Informational Texts as a Significant Part of Instruction 419
Use Alternative Assessment Strategies 420
Additional Suggestions for Working with English-Language Learners 420
In the Classroom 14.5 Gersten and Baker's Suggestions for Working with English-Language Learners 420
In the Classroom 14.6 Jimenez's Recommendations for Working with Latino and Latina Students 421
In the Classroom 14.7 Short and Echevarria's SIOP Model 422
In the Classroom 14.8 AERA's Recommendations 422
Reflect and Apply 423
Concluding Remarks 423
Extending Learning 424
Children's Literature 425
CLASSROOM PORTRAIT A DAY IN THE LIFE OF DAVID CARBERRY AND HIS FIFTH - AND SIXTH-GRADE STUDENTS
References 485
Photo Credits 503
Name Index 505
Subject Index 515