Advances in Metabolic Mapping Techniques for Brain Imaging of Behavioral and Learning Functions

I: Techniques.- Imaging Techniques in Studies of Neural Functions.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Local Cerebral Blood Flow.- 3. Local Cerebral Glucose Utilization.- 3.1. Theoretical Basis of Radioactive Deoxyglucose Method.- 3.2. Considerations in Design of Procedure.- 3.3. Experimental Procedure.- 3.4. Local Rates of Cerebral Glucose Utilization.- 3.5. The [18F]Fluorodeoxyglucose Technique.- 3.6. Metabolic Mapping of Local Functional Activity.- 4. Local Cerebral Protein Synthesis.- 4.1. Theory.- 4.2. Determination of ?i.- 4.3. Local Rates of Protein Synthesis in the Conscious Rat Brain.- 4.4. Applications of Autoradiographic L-[1-14C]Leucine Method.- 5. Miscellaneous Imaging Methods.- 6. References.- Brain Imaging of Auditory Learning Functions in Rats: Studies with Fluorodeoxyglucose Autoradiography and Cytochrome Oxidase Histochemistry.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Brain Imaging with Metabolic Mapping Techniques.- 1.2. Neuronal Activity in Sensory Systems is Modified by Learning.- 1.3. Metabolic Mapping Studies show Learning-Related Modifications in the Activity of the Auditory System.- 2. Principles of Fluorodeoxyglucose Autoradiography and their Applications for Neuroimaging of Learning Functions.- 2.1. Goals for FDG Autoradiographic Experiments.- 2.2. Transport and Uptake of FDG as a Glucose Analog.- 2.3. Tracer Specific Activity and Testing Conditions.- 2.4. Tissue Processing for FDG Autoradiography.- 2.5. Quantitative Analysis of FDG Autoradiographs.- 2.6. Procedure for FDG Quantitative Autoradiography.- 3. Application of FDG to the Study of Behavioral Habituation to an Auditory Stimulus.- 3.1. Short and Long-Term Habituation of the Acoustic Startle Reflex.- 3.2. Experimental Design and Methods.- 3.3. Effects on the Auditory System.- 3.4. Effects Outside the Auditory System.- 3.5. Model of the Neural Circuitry Related to Long-Term Habituation of the Acoustic Startle Reflex.- 4. Application of FDG to the Study of Differential Conditioning of Auditory Stimuli.- 4.1. Neural Effects of Sounds Differentially Associated with Appetitive and Aversive Unconditioned Stimuli.- 4.2. Experimental Design and Methods.- 4.3. Effects on the Auditory System.- 4.4. Effects Outside the Auditory System.- 4.5. Model of the Neural Circuitry Related to Differential Conditioning of Auditory Stimuli.- 5. Principles of Cytochrome Oxidase Histochemistry and their Applications for Neuroimaging of Learning Functions.- 5.1. Goals for CO Histochemical Experiments.- 5.2. The use of CO as an Endogenous Marker for Neuronal Function.- 5.3. CO Enzymology and Quantitative Histochemistry.- 5.4. Procedure for CO Quantitative Histochemistry.- 6. Application of CO Histochemistry to the Study of Learning Functions.- 6.1. Interassay Variability and Linearity for Group Comparisons.- 6.2. Learning-Related Increase in Metabolic Capacity.- 7. Conclusions.- 7.1. Application of FDG Autoradiography to Long-Term Habituation Revealed the Functional Brain Circuitry Mediating this Simple Form of Learning.- 7.2. Application of FDG Autoradiography to Differential Conditioning Revealed the Functional Brain Circuitry Mediating this Form of Discrimination Learning.- 7.3. Application of CO Histochemistry Revealed Long-Lasting Modifications in Metabolic Capacity Related to Chronic Learning.- 7.4. Learning-Related Changes are Distributed in Neural Systems with Specific Functional Contributions to Modify Behavior.- 8. Acknowledgements.- 9. References.- Mapping Sensorimotor Pathways in Rat Brain Using 2-Deoxyglucose Autoradiography and C-Fos Immunocytochemistry.- 1. Introduction-2-DG Studies of Thalamus.- 2. 2-DG Methods-Whisker Stimulation Following Cortical Lesions.- 3. Conclusions of 2-DG Studies.- 4. Introduction- c-fos Studies.- 5. Methods-Cortical Stimulation with c-fos and 2-DG.- 6. Results- c-fos and 2-DG.- 7. Conclusions.- 8. Comments on Quantitation of 2-DG and c-fos Studies.- 9. Acknowledgements.- 10. References.- Brain Metabolic Mapping and Behavior: Assessing the Effects of Early Developmental Experiences in Adult Animals.- 1. General Introduction.- 1.1. General Methodological Aspects.- 2. Study I: 14C-2-DG Autoradiography Under Normal vs. Challenge Conditions: Effects of Neonatal 6-OHDA Lesions and Rearing Environment.- 2.1. Methods.- 2.2. Results.- 2.3. Discussion.- 3. Study II: Effects of Prenatal Cocaine Exposure on Regional Brain Glucose Metabolism and Cytochrome Oxidase Histochemistry.- 3.1. Methods.- 3.2. Results.- 3.3. Discussion.- 4. General Conclusions.- 5. Acknowledgements.- 6. References.- High Resolution Autoradiographic Imaging of Brain Activity Patterns With 2-Deoxyglucose: Regional Topographic and Cellular Analysis.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Methods and Examples of Results.- 2.1. Animal Preparation for Injection of 2-DG.- 2.2. Improvement of Regional Topographic Resolution in 2-DG Studies.- 2.3. Cellular Resolution in 2-DG Studies.- 3. Consideration of the Time Course of 2-DG Studies.- 4. Quantitative Considerations in 5 Minutes 2-DG Studies.- 5. Summary and Conclusions.- 6. Acknowledgements.- 7. References.- Metabolic Mapping in the Hippocampus. Patterns of (14C)2-Deoxyglucose Uptake Within Different Fields of the Hippocampal Slice.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Material and Methods.- 2.1. Tissue Preparation.- 2.2. Electrophysiology.- 2.3. [14C]2-Deoxyglucose Incubation.- 2.4. Potassium Stimulation.- 2.5. Histology.- 2.6. Densitometric Analysis.- 3. Results.- 3.1. Comparison with Previous in vivo Results.- 3.2. Potassium Stimulation.- 4. Discussion.- 4.1. Potassium Stimulation.- 5. Acknowledgements.- 6. References.- Covariance Analysis of Functional Interactions in the Brain Using Metabolic and Blood Flow Data.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Methods.- 3. Examples of Correlational Analyses.- 3.1. Nucleus Basalis Magnocellularis Lesions in the Rat.- 3.2. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder.- 3.3. Object and Spatial Vision in Humans.- 4. What are the Neurobiological Substrates ofInterregional Correlations?.- 5. Brain Network Modeling of Metabolic Data.- 5.1. The Model.- 5.2. Examples of Simulations.- 5.3. Data-Fitting and Combinations of Neural Models.- 6. Acknowledgements.- 7. References.- The Application of Structural Modeling to Metabolic Mapping of Functional Neural Systems.- 1. Introduction.- 2. General Method.- 2.1. Building a Model.- 2.2. Preparation of Data.- 2.3. Running the Analysis.- 2.4. Stacked Models.- 2.5. Theoretical Interpretation of the Model.- 3. Auditory System Model of Long-Term Habituation.- 3.1. Results.- 3.2. Discussion of Auditory System Models.- 4. Visual System Model of the Effects of Patterned Light and Footshock.- 4.1. Results.- 4.2. Discussion of Visual System Models.- 5. General Discussion.- 5.1. Considerations and Caveats.- 5.2. Other Methods of Data Quantification.- 5.3. Concluding Remarks.- 6. References.- II: Application.- A 2-DG Analysis of the Effects of Monocular Deprivation on the Rat Visual System.- 1. Introduction.- 2. General Methods.- 2.1. Subjects.- 2.2. 2-DG Procedure.- 3. Results and Discussion.- 3.1. Six-Week Infant MD; Test: Binocular Exposure to Gratings.- 3.2. Six-Week Infant MD; Test: Dark Box.- 3.3. Six-Week Juvenile and Adult MD; Test: Binocular Exposure to Gratings.- 3.4. Six-Week Infant MD; Test: Binocular Exposure to Diffuse Light.- 3.5. Two- to Nine-Week Normal; Test: Monocular Exposure to Gratings or Flashing-Diffuse Light.- 4. Conclusions.- 5. Acknowledgements.- 6. References.- Development of Sound Representation in the Auditory Cortex of Tree Shrews (Tupaia Belangeri): A [14C]-2-DG Study.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Material and Methods.- 2.1. Subjects and Housing.- 2.2. 2-DG Application.- 2.3. Acoustic Stimulation.- 2.4. Tissue Preparation and Autoradiography.- 2.5. Histological Identification of Labelled Regions.- 2.6. Data Analysis and Documentation of Results.- 3. Results.- 3.1. Effect of Different Sound Patterns (BBN, HFS, LFS, SC) on 2-DG Uptake in Auditory Cortex of Adult Tree Shrews.- 3.2. Effect of Different Sound Patterns (BBN, SC) on 2-DG Uptake in the Auditory Cortex of Developing Tree Shrews.- 4. Conclusions.- 5. References.- Integration of Circadian and Visual Function in Mammals and Birds: Brain Imaging and the Role of Melatonin in Biological Clock Regulation.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. The Avian Circadian Clock is a Multi-Component System.- 1.2. Mammalian Circadian Rhythmicity and the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus.- 2. Methodology.- 2.1. Circadian Rhythm Research.- 2.2. 2-Deoxyglucose Technique.- 2.3. In Vitro 2-[125 I] Iodomelatonin Binding.- 2.3. Image Representation.- 3. Melatonin and the Rat Circadian System.- 3.1. Effects of Melatonin on Rat SCN 2-Deoxyglucose Uptake.- 3.2. 2-[125I] Iodomelatonin Binding in the Rodent Brain.- 4. Sites of Melatonin Action in the Avian Brain.- 4.1. Circadian Variation of 2-Deoxyglucose Uptake in the Brain of the House Sparrow.- 4.2. Effect of Exogenous Melatonin on Cerebral 2-Deoxyglucose Uptake in the House Sparrow.- 4.3. 2-[125I]ldomelatonin Binding within the Avian Brain.- 5. Conclusions.- 6. Literature Cited.- Functional Correlates of Acute Prolonged Pain in the Rat Central Nervous System: 2-DG Studies.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Methods.- 2.1. The Formalin Test.- 2.2. Quantitative 2-DG Studies.- 2.3. Semi-Quantitative 2-DG Studies.- 3. Results and Discussion.- 3.1. Animal Behavior.- 3.2. Physiological Variables.- 3.3. Glucose Metabolism.- 4. Conclusions.- 5. Acknowledgements.- 6. References.- Brain Systems Involved in Depressed Behaviors: Corroboration from Different Metabolic Mapping Studies..- 1. Introduction.- 2. Methods.- 3. Results.- 4. Mapping Studies of Reward and Arousal.- 5. Mapping Studies of Reduced Locomotion.- 6. Conclusions.- 7. References.- 2-DG and Neuroethology: Metabolic Mapping of Brain Activity During Species-Typical Sexual and Aggressive Behaviors.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Reptiles as a Source of Model Systems in Behavioral Neuroscience.- 3. Brain Imaging During Sexual and Agonistic Behavior in Three Reptile Animal Models.- 3.1. Red-Sided Garter Snake.- 3.2. Green Anole Lizard.- 3.3. Whiptail Lizard.- 4. Conclusions.- 5. Acknowledgements.- 6. References.- Investigations into Time-Dependent Metabolic Changes During Memory Processing in the Mouse Brain Using (14C)-Deoxyglucose and (14C)-Glucose.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. The Concept of Memory Processing.- 1.2. The Use of 2-DG to Study Learning and Memory Processes.- 2. Materials and Methods.- 2.1. Subjects.- 2.2. Surgery.- 2.3. Procedure for Injection of the Tracer.- 2.4. Processing of Brain Tissue.- 2.5. Densitometric Analysis of Autoradiographs: The Semi-Quantitative Method.- 2.6. The use of (14C)-Glucose to Study Short-Time Frames.- 2.7. Behavioral Tasks.- 2.8. Experimental Protocols.- 3. Results.- 3.1. Time-Dependent Sequential Increases in 2-DG Uptake During Memory Consolidation of the Bar-Pressing Task.- 3.2. Time-Dependent (14C)-Glucose Uptake Patterns During Memory Processing of Spatial Discrimination Testing in Radial Maze..- 3.3. General Discussion.- 4. Conclusions.- 5. Acknowledgements.- 6. References.- Localization of Learning-Related Metabolic Changes in Brain Structures of Common Toads: A 2-DG-Study.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Methods.- 2.1. Training Procedure.- 2.2. Mapping of Brain Activity with 2-DG, Technical Questions.- 3. Results.- 3.1. Behavioral Effects of Visual Conditioning on Prey-Predator Discrimination.- 3.2. Comparison of 2-DG Uptake on Naive and Visually Monocular and Binocular Conditioned Toads.- 3.3. Brain Lesions.- 3.4. Summary of Olfactory Learning Experiments in Toads with 2-DG.- 3.5. Summary of Extracellular Single Cell Recording.- 3.6. Summary of Visual Long-Term Habituation Experiments with 2-DG in Toads.- 3.7. Summary of Results of 2-DG Experiments in MS222 Anesthetized Toads.- 3.8. Summary of Results of 2-DG Experiments in Electrically RET Stimulated Toads.- 3.9. Summary of Results of 2-DG Experiments, Combining MS222 Anesthesia and Electrical RET Stimulation in Toads.- 4. Discussion.- 4.1. Associative Conditioning versus Extinction Learning.- 4.2. Usefulness of the Selected 2-DG Method in Combination with other Techniques for the Questions, Tackled in the Described Experiments..- 4.3. Physical Properties of the Stimulus and its Learned Motivational Significance.- 4.4. Changes of Metabolic Activity in the Central Visual Pathway.- 4.5. Changes of 2-DG Uptake Patterns in Non-Visual Forebrain Areas of Trained Toads.- 5. Conclusions.- 6. References.- Learning-Related Plasticity of Gerbil Auditory Cortex: Feature Maps versus Meaning Maps.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Basic Functional Organization of Auditory Cortex: Electrophysiology.- 3. Basic Functional Organization of Auditory Cotrex: Deoxyglucose Labeling.- 4. Learning-Induced Changes of Fluoro-2-Deoxyglucose Uptake.- 5. Electrophysiological Changes after Classical Conditioning.- 6. Discussion.- 7. Literature.- III: Discussions.- Discussions on Advances in Metabolic Mapping Techniques.- Discussions on Brain Imaging of Behavioral Functions.- Discussions on Brain Imaging of Learning Functions.