A Historical Introduction to Philosophy

1. EARLY GREEK PHILOSOPHY ; Introduction ; Homer and Hesiod ; Principal concerns of the Presocratics ; Milesians ; Thales ; Anaximander ; Anaximenes ; Other Ionians ; Xenophanes ; Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans ; Heraclitus ; The Eleatics ; Parmenides ; Zeno ; Pluralist Alternatives to Parmenides ; Empedocles ; Anaxagoras ; The Atomists: Parmenides as Pluralist ; The Sophists: Rhetoric and Virtue for a Price ; Protagoras and Gorgias ; 2. SOCRATES AND PLATO ; Introduction ; Socrates ; The Euthyphro ; Meno ; The Apology ; Plato ; Introduction to the Theory of Forms ; Phaedo ; The Republic ; Phaedrus ; 3. ARISTOTLE ; Introduction ; Logical Works ; Categories ; Nature and the Soul ; Physics ; On the Soul ; Ethics ; Book 1 ; Book 2 ; Book 3 ; 4. HELLENISTIC PHILOSOPHY ; Epicureanism ; Atoms and Free Will ; Fearing the Gods ; Fear of Death ; Pleasure and Pain ; Prudence and Freedom ; Stoicism ; Zeno of Citium: Logic, Physics, and Ethics ; Epictetus ; Cynicism ; Antisthenes and Diogenes ; Skepticism ; Academics and Pyrrhonians ; The Goal and Criterion of Skepticism ; The Ten Modes of Skepticism ; 5. MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY ; Augustine ; Book 1. Good and Evil ; Book 2. ; Book 3. ; The Confessions: Augustine on Time ; Anselm ; Proslogion 1 ; Averroes (from The Decisive Treatise Determining the Nature of the Connection Between Religion and Philosophy) ; Chapter 2: Philosophy and Religion Belong Together ; Chapter 3: The Elite and Ordinary Believers ; Moses Maimonides (from The Guide for the Perplexed) ; God and Biblical Language ; Thomas Aquinas (from Summa Theologica) ; The Existence of God ; Natural Law ; 6. RENAISSANCE AND EARLY MODERN PHILOSOPHY ; Humanism ; Pico's Oration ; More's Utopia ; The Reformation ; Luther's Appeal ; Calvin's Institutes ; Fideism and Skepticism ; Montaigne's Apology (from "Apology for Raymond Sebond") ; Bayle's Dictionary (from "Psyrrho" in Historical and Critical Dictionary) ; Pascal's Wager (from Thoughts) ; Astronomy ; The Earth-Centered System of the Universe ; Copernicus ("Dedication" to On the Revolutions of ; THE HEAVENLY SPHERES) ; Galileo (from "letter to Giacomo Muti," and Dialogues on the Two Chief Systems of the World) ; Newton (from "Preface" to Principia Mathematica) ; Implications of Modern Astronomy ; Scientific Method ; Bacon and Induction ; Descartes's Method ; Newton's Method of Investigation (from Principia Mathematica and Optics) ; Mathematics and Scientific Method ; 7. RATIONALISM ; Rene Descartes ; Meditation 1: Concerning Those Things That Can Be Called Into Doubt ; Meditation 2: Concerning the Nature of the Human Mind: That the Mind Is More Known Than the Body ; Meditation 3: Of God: That He Exists ; Meditation 6: Of the Existence of Material Things, and of the Real Distinction between the Soul and Body of Man ; Supplementary Selections ; Benedict Spinoza (from The Ethics) ; God Does Not Willfully Direct the Course of Nature ; Nicholas Malebranche (from The Search after Truth) ; Chapter 1, Section 1: What Is Meant by Ideas; That They Truly Exist, and That They Are Necessary to Perceive All Material Objects ; Chapter 6: That We See All Things Through God ; Occasionalism ; Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz ; Monads ; Human Perception ; Good ; Body and Soul ; The Human Spirit ; Against Atoms and a Vacuum ; Anne Conway ; All Creatures Are Changeable ; Against Descartes, Hobbes, and Spinoza ; 8. BRITISH EMPIRICISM ; John Locke (from Essay Concerning Human Understanding) ; 1:2 No Speculative Innate Principles in the Mind ; 2:1 Of Ideas in General and Their Origin ; 2:2 Of Simple Ideas ; 2:3 Of Simple Ideas of Sense ; 2:5 Of Simple Ideas of Diverse Senses ; 2:6 Of Simple Ideas of Reflection ; 2:7 Of Simple Ideas of Both Sensation and Reflection ; 2:8 Some Farther Considerations Concerning Our Simple Ideas ; 2:12 Of Complex Ideas ; 4:3 Of the Extent of Human Knowledge ; 4:9 Of Our Threefold Knowledge of Existence ; 4.11 Of Our Knowledge of the Existence of Other Things ; George Berkeley ; Dialogue One ; Dialogue Two ; Dialogue Three ; David Hume (from Enquiries and Treatise of Human Nature ; Section 2: Of the Origin of Ideas ; Section 3: Of the Association of Ideas ; Section 7: Of the Idea of Necessary Connection ; Section 10: Of Miracles ; Section 12: Of The Academical or Skeptical Philosophy ; Personal Identity ; Moral Theory ; 9. LATE MODERN AND NINETEETH-CENTURY PHILOSOPHY ; Thomas Reid (from Inquiry into the Human Mind) ; Introduction ; Chapter II. Of Smelling ; Immanuel Kant (from Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics and Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals) ; Introduction ; Preamble on the Peculiarities of All Metaphysical Knowledge ; How Is Pure Mathematics Possible? ; How Is the Science of Nature Possible? ; How Is Metaphysics in General Possible? ; Kant's Ethical Theory ; Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (from Preface to Phenomenology of Mind) ; Introduction ; Philosophy and History ; The Unity of Subject and Object ; History as Rational ; Soren Kierkegaard (from Either/Or vol. I and II) ; Introduction: Kierkegaard's "Existentialism" ; The Life of Enjoyment ; The Ethical Life ; Mary Wollstonecraft (from Vindication of the Rights of Women) ; The Rights of Women; True Virtue and True Social Flourishing ; Eduation, Virtue, and the Need for a Revolution in Manners ; John Stuart Mill (from Utilitarianism) ; 1: General Remarks ; 2: What Utilitarianism Is ; Friedrich Nietzsche (from The Birth of Tragedy, The Genealogy of Morals, The Joyful Science, and Thus Spake Zarathustra) ; Art, Morality, and Religion ; The Critique of Morality ; The Death of God ; TWENTIETH-CENTURY AND CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHY ; Bertrand Russell ; Knowledge by Acquaintance and Knowledge by ; DESCRIPTION ; Ludwig Wittgenstein ; Introduction ; Language and Use ; Willard Van Orman Quine ; The Nature of Modern Empiricism ; Background for Analyticity ; Definition ; Interchangeability ; The Verification Theory and Reductionism ; Empiricism without the Dogmas ; Jean-Paul Sartre ; Freedom in a Godless World ; G.E.M. Anscombe ; Modern Moral Philosophy