The Ready Reference Handbook

A Brief Contents and Browsing Guide. I. THE WRITING PROCESS. Composing. 1. Becoming a Critical Writer. 1a Think critically about information, ideas, and opinions. 1b Read critically. 1c Write critically: survey the writing situation. 2. Inventing Your Writing. 2a Explore possible topics. 2b Focus your writing. 2c Consider your voice (persona). 2d Write a tentative thesis. 2e Gather the materials for your writing. 3. Planning & Organizing. 4. Writing, Revising, & Editing. 4a Write a first draft. 4b Revise to say what you want to say. 4c Use peer review to help you revise. 4d Edit for your readers. 4e Prepare and proofread your final draft. 4f Sample student essay. 5. Paragraphing. 5a Write topic sentences to focus your paragraphs. 5b Adjusting paragraph length to express your purpose and suit your audience. 6. Developing Topics & Paragraphs. 6a Include details to support your topic sentence. 6b Choose appropriate methods of paragraph development to present a topic. 6c Write introductions that attract reader interest. 7. Creating Coherence. 7a Repeat key words and their synonyms. 7b Write transitions to connect ideas. 7c Link sentences with pronouns. 7d Write "Old/new" sentences: include material from preceding sentences in each new sentence. II. SENTENCE EDITING. Identifying Grammar. 8. Parts of Speech. 8a Nouns. 8b Pronouns. 8c Verbs. 8d Adjectives and articles. 8e Adverbs. 8f Prepositions. 8g Conjunctions. 8h Interjections. 9. Sentence Parts. 9a Subjects. 9b Predicates. 9c Objects. 9d Complements. 9e Basic English sentence patterns. 10. Phrases, Clauses, & Sentence Types. 10a Phrases. 10b Clauses. 10c Sentence types. 11. Editing Sentence Fragments. 11a Connect fragments to complete sentences or rewrite them as complete sentences. 11b Learn the clues that signal sentence fragments. 11c Occasionally use fragments for special effect. 12. Fixing Comma Splices & Fused Sentences. 12a Fix comma splices by repunctuating or rewriting. 12b Learn the clues that signal comma splices. 12c Fix fused sentences by punctuating or rewriting. 13. Choosing Verb Forms. 13a Use the standard forms of irregular verbs. 13b Choose verb tenses that put events in sequence. 13c Use -s/-es endings on present-tense verbs that have third-person-singular subjects. 13d Use the Standard English forms of the verbs be, have, and do. 13e Beware of omitting or misusing verb endings in words like used to, supposed to, asked, and would have. 13f Use the subjunctive mood for wishes and other nonfactual statements. 14. Making Subjects and Verbs Agree. 14a Make separated subjects and verbs agree. 14b Make subject and verb agree when the subject follows the verb. 14c Make a linking verb agree with its subject, not with a subject complement. 14d With most compound subjects, use a plural verb. 14e When the parts of a compound subject are linked by or or nor, make the verb agree with the closer part. 14f Treat indefinite pronouns as singular. 14g Treat collective nouns as singular unless their individual members act separately. 14h With plural nouns singular in meaning, use singular verbs. 14i With who, which, and that, use verbs that agree with their antecedents. 14j With titles and words mentioned as words, use singular verbs. 15. Making Pronouns and Antecedents Agree. 15a With compound antecedents linked by and, use plural pronouns. 15b With compound antecedents linked by or or nor, make the pronoun agree with the closer antecedent. 15c With collective nouns, use singular pronouns unless individual members act separately. 15d With generic nouns and indefinite pronouns, avoid disagreement and stereotyping. 15e With nouns that name organizations, use singular pronouns. 16. Making Pronoun Reference Clear. 16a Make pronouns refer to specific antecedents. 16b Avoid ambiguous reference. 16c Generally avoid using it, this, that, and which to refer to whole sentences. 16d Use who, that, whose, or whom to refer to people and to animals with names. 17. Choosing Pronoun Case Forms. 17a Use the subject case form for pronouns that are subjects or that identify subjects. 17b Use the object case form for pronouns that are objects. 17c Use the object case form in the compound subjects and objects of infinitives. 17d Use the possessive case form for nouns and pronouns before gerunds. 17e Use who and whomever for subjects and subject complements, whom and whomever for objects. 17f For the correct case form in comparisons using than or as, mentally complete the sentence. 17g Use reflexive (-self) pronouns only to refer to a preceding noun or pronoun. 18. Choosing Adjectives & Adverbs. 18a Use adjectives to modify nouns and pronouns; use adverbs to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 18b Use adjectives as complements. 18c Use good/well and bad/badly correctly. 18d Use the comparative and superlative forms of adjectives correctly. 18e Avoid Double Negatives. 19. Putting Linked Words in Parallel Form. 19a Make words linked by a coordinating conjunction parallel in form. 19b Make words in a series or a list parallel in form. 19c Make words linked by a correlative conjunction (either ... or) parallel in form. 19d Make comparisons using than or as parallel in form. 19e Repeat function words to achieve parallel form. III. CRAFTING SENTENCES, CHOOSING WORDS. 20. Writing Emphatically. 20a Use the active voice when possible. 20b Subordinate less important ideas. 20c Use coordination to emphasize equal ideas. 20d Repeat key words to emphasize ideas. 20e Place important ideas at the end of the sentence. 21. Adding Variety. 21a Vary the length of your sentences. 21b Combine short, choppy sentences. 21c Divide loose, rambling sentences into two or more separate sentences. 21d Vary your sentence types. 21e Vary the structure of your sentences. 21f Ask an occasional question. 22. Avoiding Mixed & Incomplete Messages. 22a Write subjects and predicates that makes sense together. 22b Avoid mixed constructions that say one thing in two ways. 22c Make comparisons logical and complete. 22d Include all necessary key words and function words. 23. Placing Modifiers. 23a Move misplaced modifiers near the words they modify. 23b To connect dangling modifiers, rewrite or add missing words. 24. Avoiding Faulty Shifts. 24a Maintain a consistent point of view. 24b Avoid inconsistent shifts in number. 24c Stay in one tense unless the time of the action changes. 24d Maintain a consistent mood and voice. 24e Avoid inconsistent shifts from indirect to direct discourse. IV. CHOOSING WORDS. 25. Choosing Exact Words. 25a Detonation: Choose words that say exactly what you mean. 25b Connotation: Choose words that convey appropriate feelings and attitudes. 25c Learn to use all parts of a dictionary entry. 25d Use a thesaurus to find the exact word, not necessarily the biggest or fanciest. 25e Distinguish between frequently confused words. 25f Use words idiomatically. 26. Choosing Vivid Words. 26a When possible, choose specific, rather than general words 26b When possible, choose concrete rather than abstract words 26c Use figurative language to dramatize ideas, opinions, and feelings 26d Avoid cliches and mixed metaphors. 27. Choosing Appropriate Words. 27a Choose words that fit the occasion. 27b In most academic and public writing, avoid slang, regionalisms, and nonstandard words. 27c Use jargon and neologisms only with specialized audiences. 27d Avoid pretentious words, doublespeak, and most euphemisms. 27e Avoid sexist and other offensive words. 28. Editing Wordiness. 28a Eliminate redundancy. 28b Cut empty words and phrases. 28c Compress padded writing. 29. Guide to Usage: Troublesome Words & Phrases. A Guide to Usage. V. ESL EDITING. ESL Editing Guide. 30. Articles & Quantifiers. 30a Use a/an with nonspecific singular count nouns. 30b Never use a/an with noncount nouns. 30c Use the with nouns whose specific identity your readers know. 30d Do not use the with most proper nouns and with statements meaning "all" or "in general." 30e Match quantifiers with appropriate count or noncount nouns. 31. Verbs. 31a To express tense correctly, match appropriate helping and main verb forms. 31b After the helping verbs do, does, and did, use only the base form of the verb. 31c Use modal verbs to indicate your attitude toward the action of a transitive verb. 31d Use the passive voice when a subject receives the action of a transitive verb. 31e Use correct verb tenses in conditional (if ...) sentences. 31f Learn which verbs may be followed by an infinitive, gerund, or either verb form. 31g Use two-word verbs correctly. 32. More Grammar. 32a Include all necessary words. 32b Avoid unnecessary repetition. 32c Begin dependent clauses with correct linking words. 32d Follow these guidelines to summarize questions and speech. 32e Choose the correct word endings for your meaning . 32f Show possession with an apostrophe or an of phrase. 32g Use adjectives and adverbs with care. 32h Choose the appropriate prepositions for your meaning. VI. PUNCTUATION. 33. End Punctuation. 33a Use a period to mark sentences and abbreviations. 33b Use a question mark to signal questions, requests, and doubts. 33c Use a Exclamation Point for an Outcry, Emphasis, and Irony. 34. The Comma. 34a Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (but, and) that links independent clauses. 34b Use a comma after introductory words. 34c Use a comma between items in a series. 34d Use a comma between coordinate adjectives but not between cumulative adjectives. 34e Use commas to set off nonessential modifiers; do not use commas to set off essential modifiers. 34f Use commas to set off transitions, parenthetical expressions, and contrast statements. 34g Use commas to set off signal statements, direct address, and mild interjections. 34h Use commas with titles and degrees, dates, addresses, place names, and numbers. 34i Use commas to signal omissions and prevent misreading. 34j Follow these guidelines to use commas with quotation marks, parentheses, and brackets. 34k Avoid unnecessary commas. 35. The Semicolon. 35a Use a semicolon to join closely related independent clauses. 35b Use a semicolon before a conjunctive adverb or transition joining independent clauses. 35c Use a semicolon between items in a series if one or more items contain internal punctuation. 35d Avoid unnecessary semicolons. 36. The Colon. 36a Use a colon following an independent clause to introduce a list, quotation, appositive, or explanation. 36b Use a Colon to Separate Related Formal Events. 36c Avoid Unnecessary Colons. 37. The Apostrophe. 37a Use an apostrophe to signal possession by nouns and indefinite pronouns. 37b Use an apostrophe to signal contractions. 37c Use an apostrophe plus s for plural letters and plural words used as words. 37d Avoiding unnecessary apostrophes. 38. Quotation Marks. 38a Enclose direct quotations in double quotation marks (" "). 38b Follow these guidelines to punctuate quotations correctly. 38c Use single quotation marks (' ') only to enclose quotations and within quotations. 38d Use quotation marks to enclose the titles of short works. 38e Occasionally use quotation marks to signal words used in a special sense. 38f Avoid Unnecessary Quotation Marks. 39. Other Punctuation Marks. 39a Use a dash for a change of thought, parenthetical remarks, or faltering speech. 39b Use parentheses to enclose parenthetical remarks and numbers that mark items in a series. 39c Use brackets for insertions. 39d Use ellipsis points to signal omissions. 39e Use the slash with poetry and paired words. VII. MECHANICS, SPELLING, & DOCUMENT FORMATTING. Mechanics. 40. Capital Letters. 40a Capitalize the first word of sentences, deliberate fragments, and lines of poetry. 40b Capitalize proper nouns and words derived from them. 40c Capitalized the first, last, and all major words in the titles of works. 40d Avoid Unnecessary Capital Letters. 41. Italics/Underlining. 41a Italicize or underline the titles of separately produced works. 41b Italicize or underline the names of ships, trains, aircraft, and spacecraft. 41c Italicize or underline foreign words and phrases. 41d Italicize or underline letters, words, and numbers used as nouns. 41e Occasionally italicize or underline for emphasis. 42. Abbreviations. 42a General guidelines. 42b Titles with personal names. 42c Dates and time. 42d Geographic terms and place names. 42e Organization names. 42f Units of measure. 42g Latin and other scholarly abbreviations. 43. Numbers. 43a Write numbers as words or figures according to the following guidelines. 43b When one number modifies another, write one as a figure, the other as a word. 43c Write related numbers alike, as words or figures. 44. The Hyphen. 44a Avoid word division at the end of a line. 44b Use a dictionary to hyphenate compounds. 44c Hyphenate compound adjectives before a noun but not following a noun. 44d Hyphenate after the prefixes all-, ex-, great-, and self- and before the suffix -elect. 44e Hyphenate spelled-out fractions, numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine, and combinations of figures and words. 44f Hyphenate to prevent misreading. 45. Spelling. 45a Use a word guide, electronic dictionary, or spell checker. 45b Make a checklist of your spelling errors. 45c Learn the most important spelling rules. 46. Formatting Your Writing. 46a Give your writing a professional, easy-to-read appearance. 46b Use headings, lists, tables, and graphics to clarify ideas. 46c Use the Modern Language Association formal for writing in the humanities. 46d Use the American Psychological Association format for writing in the social sciences. VIII. RESEARCH AND THE INTERNET. The Research Project. 47. Choosing a Topic, Finding Sources, Preparing a Bibliography. 47a Choose a researchable topic. 47b Choose a variety of appropriate sources. 47c Follow a systematic search strategy to identify sources. 47d Use library search tools to identify sources. 47e Compile a bibliography of sources. 48. Searching the Internet. 48a Learn to navigate the Internet. 48b Search the World Wide Web. 48c Search discussion groups and other Internet spaces. 48d Use effective search techniques. 48eUse Internet sources fairly and responsibly. 48f Internet information sources. 49. Evaluating Print and Electronic Sources, Writing Research Notes. 49a Evaluate sources with the "CASE" method. 49b Evaluate Internet sources with special care. 49c Follow effective strategies for gathering information. 49d Take notes in an easy-to-use format. 49e Take notes by an appropriate method: quotation, summary, or paraphrase. 50. Planning, Writing, Using Sources, & Revising. 50a As you finish your research, take stock of it. 50b Plan a communications strategy. 50c Blend source materials into your project. 50d Indent long quotations of prose and poetry. 51. Avoiding Plagiarism in your Project. 51a Treat your sources fairly. 51b Document the words, ideas, facts, and graphics of others. 51c If you publish your research project, request permission to use copyrighted material. IX. MLA DOCUMENTATION. 52. Writing MLA In-Text (Parenthetical) Citations. 52a Follow MLA citation guidelines. 52b Follow parenthetical citation formats. 52c Include content and bibliography notes when necessary. 53. Preparing the MLA Works-Cited List. 53a Follow MLA general guidelines. 53b Sample MLA citations. 54. MLA Research Project. X. APA & OTHER DOCUMENTATION STYLES. APA Documentation. 55. Using the APA In-Text Citation Style. 55a Follow APA citation guidelines. 55b Prepare the APA reference list. 55c Sample APA citations. 55d Sample APA research project. Other Styles. 56. Endnotes or Footnotes (The Chicago Style). 56a Choose an endnote or footnote format. 56b Make a full first reference to a source. 56c Prepare a bibliography. 57. Using the CBE Style and Other Styles. 57a Use the CBE style for scientific writing. 57b Choose a style manual appropriate for your subject. XI. ARGUMENT AND PERSUASION. 58. Creating Logical Arguments. 58a Write arguable claims. 58b Gather two kinds of support for your claim. 58c Build an argument that fits your purpose. 58d Test your argument; modify it, if necessary. 58e Identify logical fallacies. 59. Arguing Persuasively. 59a Adapt your argument to your audience's needs and interests. 59b In your introduction, present yourself as trustworthy. 59c Conclude with suitable emotional appeals. 59d Sample persuasive essay. XII. SPECIAL WRITING PROJECTS. 60. Writing about Literature. 60a Reading the elements of literature. 60b Choose your options for writing about literature: analysis and interpretation. 60c Choose your options for writing about literature: the review. 60d Choose your options for writing about literature: the personal or creative response. 60e Choose your options for writing about literature: the research project. 60f Write a literary paper, using these guidelines. 60g Sample literary essay. 61. Essay Examinations. 61a Deciding what a question calls for. 61b Planning and writing your answer. 62. Business & Professional Writing. 62a Write effective business letters. 62b Write effective memos. 62c Write a winning resume. 62d Use electronic media effectively. 62e Write persuasive proposals. 62f Choose your options for writing an effective report. 63. Writing Online. 63a Communicate by e-mail. 63b Contribute to discussion groups. 63c Create a Web page. Appendix: Answers to Exercises. A List of Internet Sources. Index.