The Process of Social Research

Preface

Chapter 1. Introduction: Why Care About Research Methods?
The Process of Social Research
Four Facebook Studies
--An Experiment
--A Survey
--A Field Research Study
--An Analysis of Existing Data
Box
--Reading Social Research 1.1: Critical Evaluation of Facebook Studies

Chapter 2. Science and Social Research: From Theory to Data and Back
The Characteristics and Process of Science
--Theory
--Verifiable Data
--Systematic Observation and Analysis
--Logical Reasoning
Logics of Inquiry
--Does Contact Change Stereotypes? An Answer from Deductive Inquiry
--How Does Class Matter? An Answer from Inductive Inquiry
--Combining the Logics of Inquiry
--From a Psychological Theory of Suicide to a Sociological One
Evaluating Science: Possibilities, Cautions, and Limits
--Tentative Knowledge
--The Ideal and Reality of the Scientific Process
--The Sociohistorical Aspect of Science
--The Human Element of Science
Boxes
--Reading Social Research 2.1: Verify This!
--Check You Understanding 2.2: Identifying and Evaluating Deductive and Inductive Reasoning

Chapter 3. The Ethics and Politics of Research: Doing What's "Right"
Overview: Ethics
Ethical Issues in the Treatment of Research Participants
--Potential Harm
--Informed Consent
--Deception
--Invasion of Privacy
Federal and Professional Ethical Guidelines
--Evaluating Potential Harm
--Informed Consent Procedures
--Deception Ground Rules
--Privacy Protection: Anonymity and Confidentiality
The Process of Ethical Decision-Making
--Review Federal Regulations and Professional Ethics Codes
--Identify and Address Areas of Ethical Concern
--Prepare and Submit Application for IRB Approval
--Collect Data and Secure Participants' Rights
Politics and Social Research
--Topic Selection, Political Ideology, and Research Funding
--Data Analysis and Interpretation and Political Ideology
--Dissemination of Research Findings: Science, Politics, and Public Policy
The Intersection of Ethics and Politics in Social Research
--A Case Study: Research on Same-Sex Parenting
--Conflict of Interest
--Social Responsibility
Boxes
--Reading Social Research 3.1: Privacy Invasion in the Public Identification of Participants
--Check Your Understanding 3.2: Ethics Practice Questions
--Doing Social Research: 3.3: Web Resources on Research Ethics

Chapter 4. Research Designs: It Depends on the Question
Initial Steps in the Research Process
--Select Research Topic
--Review the Literature/Consider Theory
--Formulate Research Question
--Prepare Research Design
Designing Research to Answer Quantitative Questions
--Select a Research Strategy
--Identify and Select Units of Analysis
--Measure Variables
--Gather Data and Analyze Relationships Among Variables
Designing Research to Answer Qualitative Questions
--Select Research Strategy
--Select Field Setting, Social Group, and/or Archival Records
--Gain Access and Establish Relationships
--Decide Whom to Observe or Interview or What to Read
--Gather and Analyze Data
Boxes
--Doing Social Research 4.1: How to Search the Literature
--Reading Social Research 4.2: The Ecological Fallacy
--Checking Your Understanding 4.3: Quantitative Research Questions, Units of Analysis, and Variables
--Reading Social Research 4.4: How to Interpret Correlations and Tests of Statistical Significance

Chapter 5. Measurement: Linking Theory to Research
Overview: The Measurement Process
Conceptualization and Operationalization
--Conceptualization
--Operationalization
Variations in Operational Definitions: Data Sources
--Manipulated Versus Measured Operations
--Sources of Measured Operational Definitions
Variations in Operational Definitions: Levels of Measurement
--Nominal Measurement
--Ordinal Measurement
--Interval Measurement
--Ratio Measurement
Select and Apply Operational Definitions to Produce Data
Assess the Quality of Operational Definitions
--Forms of Reliability Assessment
--Forms of Validity Assessment
The Feedback Loop: From Data Back to Concepts and Measurement
Boxes
--Doing Social Research 5.1: Improving Measurement with Composite Measures
--Checking Your Understanding 5.2: Inferring Level of Measurement From Operational Definitions
--Reading Social Research 5.3: Indexes, Scales, and Scaling Techniques
--Reading Social Research 5.4: Measurement Error and the Social Desirability Effect

Chapter 6. Sampling: Case Selection as a Basis for Inference
Overview: The Sampling Process
Principles of Probability Sampling
--Probability and Random Selection
--Probability Distribution and Sampling Error
--Sampling Distributions
--Statistical Inference
Steps in Probability Sampling
--Define Target Population
--Construct Sampling Frame
--Devise Sampling Design
--Determine Sample Size
--Draw Sample
Nonprobability Sampling
--Overview of Nonprobability Sampling
--Steps in Nonprobability Sampling
--Making Inferences from Nonprobability Samples
Boxes
--Doing Social Research 6.1: How to Select Things Randomly
--Checking Your Understanding 6.2: The Principles of Probability Sampling as Applied to the 2016 Pre-election Polls
--Reading Social Research 6.3: Assessing Nonresponse Bias and Overall Sample Quality

Chapter 7. Experiments: What Causes What?
Introductory Example: Misconduct in Criminal Prosecution
The Logic of Experimentation
Variations on the Experimental Method
--Variations in Experimental Design
--Variations in Experimental Context
The Process of Conducting Experiments
--Pretesting
--Participant Recruitment and Informed Consent
--Experimental Manipulation and Random Assignment
--Manipulation Checks
--Measurement of the Dependent Variable
Debriefing
--Strengths and Weaknesses of Experiments
--Internal Validity
--External Validity
--Reactive Measurement Effects
--Content Restrictions
Boxes
--Checking Your Understanding 7.1: The Difference Between Random Sampling and Random Assignment
--Doing Social Research 7.2: Informed Consent Form for an Experiment
--Reading Social Research 7.3: Thinking Critically About Research Designs and Threats to Internal Validity

Chapter 8. Surveys: Questioning and Sampling
Introductory Example: The Constructing the Family Survey
General Features of Survey Research
--Large-Scale Probability Sampling
--Structured Interviews of Questionnaires
--Quantitative Data Analysis
Variations in Survey Designs and Modes
--Survey Research Designs
--Data-Collection Modes
The Process of Planning and Conducting a Survey
--Choosing Mode of Data Collection
--Construct and Pretest Questionnaire
--Choose Sampling Frame/Design and Select Sample
--Recruit Sample and Collect Data
--Code and Edit Data
Strengths and Weaknesses of Surveys
--Generalization to Populations
--Versatility
--Efficiency
--Establishing Causal Relationships
--Measurement Issues
Boxes
--Reading Social Research 8.1: Open-Ended Versus Closed-Ended Questions in Survey Research
--Doing Social Research 8.2: Writing Survey Questions
--Doing Social Research 8.3: Informed Consent Statement in the Constructing the Family Survey

Chapter 9. Field Research and In-Depth Interviews: Systematic People Watching and Listening
Introductory Field Research Example: Mexican New York
Introductory In-Depth Interview Example: Mexican Americans Across Generations
General Features of Qualitative Research
--Observation
--Interviews
--Supplementary Archival and Other Data
--Nonprobability Sampling
--Qualitative Data Analysis
--Reflexivity
Variations in Qualitative Research Methods
--Degrees of Participation and Observation
--Over Versus Covert Observation
--Interview Structure
--Individual Versus Group Interviews
The Process of Conducting Field Research
--Select Setting/Group
--Gain Access
--Establish Roles and Relationships
--Decide What to Observe/Whom to Interview
--Gather and Analyze Data
--Leave the Field
--Write the Report
The Process of Conducting In-Depth Interviews
--Select and Recruit Interviewees
--Develop Interview Guide
--Gather Data
--Analyze Data
Strengths and Limitations of Qualitative Research
--Naturalistic Approach
--Subjective and Contextual Understanding
--Flexible Research Design
--Generalizability
--Reliability and Validity
--Efficiency
Boxes
--Checking Your Understanding 9.1: The "Nacirema" and Reflexivity
--Reading Social Research 9.2: Getting an Insider's View of Students by Passing as One
--Doing Social Research 9.3: Preparing for an In-Depth Interview

Chapter 10. Existing Data Analysis: Using Data from Secondhand Sources
Sources and Examples of Existing Data
--Public Documents and Official Records
--Private Documents
--Mass Media
--Physical, Nonverbal Evidence
--Social Science Data Archives
Analysis of Existing Statistical Data
--Existing Statistics Example: The Impact of MTV's 16 and Pregnant on Teen Childbearing
--The Process of Analyzing Existing Statistics
Content Analysis
--Content Analysis Example: Journalistic Accounts of the Iraq War
--The Process of Content Analysis
Comparative Historical Analysis
--An Example of Comparative Historical Analysis: The Emergence of Mass Imprisonment
--The Process of Comparative Historical Analysis
Strengths and Limitations of Existing Data Analysis
--Studying Social Structure, History, and Social Change
--Nonreactive Measurement
--Cost Efficiency
--Data Limitations
Boxes
--Reading Social Research 10.1: The Big Data Revolution
--Checking Your Understanding 10.2: Identifying Units of Analysis
--Doing Social Research 10.3: Analyzing the Content of Cell Phone Use

Chapter 11. Multiple Methods: Two or More Approaches Are Better than One
A Comparison of Four Basic Approaches to Social Research
Examples of Mixed Methods Research
--Effect of Abuse on Marriage and Cohabitation
--What Employers Say Versus What They Do
--Explaining Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market
--Unpredictability and Unequal Control of Work Schedules and Time
Purposes of Mixed Methods Research
--Triangulation
--Complementarity
--Development
--Expansion
Mixed Methods Research Designs
--Sequential Design
--Concurrent Design
--Component Design
--Integrated Design
Boxes
--Doing Social Research 11.1: Limitations and Guidelines for Doing Mixed Methods Research

Chapter 12. Quantitative Data Analysis: Using Statistics for Description and Inference
Introductory Example of Survey Data Analysis: Drinking and Grades
Introductory Overview: The Process of Quantitative Analysis
Prepare Data for Computerized Analysis: Data Processing
--Coding
--Editing
--Entering the Data
--Clearing
Inspect and Modify Data
--Nominal- and Ordinal-Scale Variables
--Interval- and Ratio-Scale Variables
Carry Out Preliminary Hypothesis Testing
--Nominal- and Ordinal-Scale Variables
--Interval- and Ratio-Scale Variables
Conduct Multivariate Testing
--Elaboration of Contingency Tables
--Multiple Regression
Boxes
--Doing Social Research 12.1: Codebook Documentation
--Checking Your Understanding 12.2: The Meaning of Statistical Significance and Strength of Association
--Reading Social Research 12.3: The Impact of Statistical Assumptions in Quantitative Data Analysis

Chapter 13. Qualitative Data Analysis: Searching for Meaning
Introductory Example: Homelessness in Austin, Texas
Overview: A Process of Analyzing Qualitative Data
Prepare Data
--Transform the Data to Readable Text
--Check for and Resolve Errors
--Manage the Data
Identify Concepts, Patterns, and Relationships
--Coding
--Memo-Writing
--Data Displays
Draw and Evaluate Conclusions
Variations in Qualitative Data Analysis
--Grounded Theory Methods
--Narrative Analysis
--Conversation Analysis
Boxes
--Doing Social Research 13.1: Coding Textual Data
--Reading Social Research 13.2: From Displays Back to Data

Chapter 14. Reading and Writing in Social Research: It's All About Communication
Read, Take Notes, and Write Research Proposal
--Locate Relevant Research Literature
--Read and Evaluate Prior Research
--Formulate Research Question
--Design Research and Prepare Proposal
Write Research Report
--Outline and Prepare to Write
--Write First Draft
--Revision and Other Writing Considerations
Boxes
--Reading Social Research 14.1: Questions to Ask in Evaluating a Research Report
--Doing Social Research 14.2: ASA Guidelines for In-Text Citations and References

Glossary
References
Credits
Index