Representations of Commonsense Knowledge

Preface
List of Tables
List of Figures
List of Named Axioms
1 Automating Common Sense
1.1 Knowledge Bases
1.2 Methodology
1.3 Implementation
1.4 The Role of Natural Language
1.5 The Role of Logic
1.6 Incomplete and Uncertain Knowledge
1.7 Vagueness
1.8 Indexicals
1.9 Commonsense Reasoning in Artificial Intelligence
1.10 Philosophy
1.11 Mathematics and Commonsense Reasoning
1.12 References
2 Logic
2.1 Logical Systems and Languages
2.2 Propositional Calculus
2.3 Predicate Calculus
2.3.1 Syntax of Predicate Calculus
2.3.2 Tarskian Semantics
2.3.3 Other Issues in First-Order Logic
2.4 Standard First-Order Notations and Theories
2.5 Operators on Sentences
2.6 Extensional Operators
2.7 Modal Logic
2.7.1 Possible-Worlds Semantics
2.7.2 Direct Use of Possible Worlds
2.7.3 Individuals and Modality
2.8 Syntactic Theories
2.8.1 Strings
2.8.2 Paradoxes of Self-Reference
2.9 Appendix A: Natural Deduction
2.10 References
2.11 Exercises
3 Plausible Reasoning
3.1 Nonmonotonic Logic
3.1.1 Nonmonotonicity
3.1.2 Domain-Independent Rules
3.1.3 Circumscription
3.1.4 Default Theory
3.1.5 Preferred Models
3.2 Classical Probability Theory
3.2.1 Bayes's Formula
3.2.2 Possible-Worlds Semantics
3.3 Statistical Inference
3.3.1 Frequency
3.3.2 Independence
3.3.3 Independent Evidence
3.3.4 Maximum Entropy
3.3.5 Sampling
3.3.6 Domain-Specific Knowledge
3.3.7 Conclusion
3.4 References
3.5 Exercises
4 Quantities and Measurements
4.1 Order
4.2 Intervals
4.3 Addition and Subtraction
4.4 Real Valued Scales
4.5 More Arithmetic
4.6 Parameters; Signs; Monotonie Relations
4.7 Derivatives
4.8 Mode Transition Networks
4.9 Qualitative Differential Equations
4.10 Orders of Magnitude
4.11 References
4.12 Exercises
5 Time
5.1 Situations
5.2 Events
5.3 Temporal Reasoning: Blocks World
5.4 The Frame Problem and the Ramification Problem
5.5 The Frame Problem as a Plausible Inference
5.6 Branching Time
5.7 The STRIPS Representation
5.8 Situation Calculus
5.9 Real-Valued Time
5.10 Complex States and Events
5.11 Control Structures
5.12 Modal Temporal Logic
5.13 Tracking the Present Moment
5.14 References
5.15 Exercises
6 Space
6.1 Spatial Inferences: Examples
6.1.1 Set Operations on Regions
6.1.2 Distance
6.1.3 Relative Position
6.1.4 Containment and Fitting
6.1.5 Abutment and Overlapping
6.1.6 Motion
6.1.7 Surface Differential
6.1.8 Other Predicates
6.2 Knowledge Structures
6.2.1 Occupancy
6.2.2 Constructive Solid Geometry
6.2.3 Boundary Representation
6.2.4 Topological Route Maps
6.2.5 Configuration Spaces
6.2.6 The Roller Coaster
6.3 Appendix A: Coordinate Transformations
6.4 Appendix B: Going Through
6.5 References
6.6 Exercises
7 Physics
7.1 The Component Model
7.2 Qualitative-Process Theory
7.3 Rigid Solid Objects
7.4 Liquids
7.5 Physical Agents
7.6 References
7.7 Exercises
8 Minds
8.1 Propositional Attitudes
8.2 Belief
8.2.1 Axioms for Belief
8.2.2 Possible Worlds
8.2.3 Syntactic Formulation
8.3 Degree of Belief
8.4 Knowledge
8.5 Knowing Whether and What
8.6 Minds and Time
8.6.1 Situations and Possible Worlds
8.7 Perceptions
8.8 Realistic Models of Mind
8.9 References
8.10 Exercises
9 Plans and Goals
9.1 Plans as Sequences of Primitive Actions
9.1.1 TWEAK-a Nonlinear Planner
9.2 Extensions
9.3 Plans and Goals as Mental States
9.3.1 Knowledge of Plans and Goals
9.3.2 Knowledge Needed for Plan Execution
9.3.3 Planning and Acting
9.3.4 Reactive Planning
9.3.5 Characteristic Goals
9.4 References
9.5 Exercises
10 Society
10.1 Common Knowledge
10.2 Multiagent Plans
10.3 Communication
10.3.1 Locutionary Descriptions
10.3.2 Illocutionary Speech Acts
10.3.3 Sample Verification of a Plan of Influence
10.4 Ethics
10.5 Possession
10.6 Appendix A: Conceptual Dependency
10.7 References
10.8 Exercises
Bibliography
Glossary
Index of Names
General Index