Porphyrin-Based Composites
Materials and Applications
1st Edition
Published on 9. May 2025
Book
Hardback
640 pages
978-1-394-21438-9 (ISBN)
Description
Discover the transformative potential of porphyrin-based composites in Porphyrin-Based Composites where readers will learn how these innovative materials enhance industrial sectors by combining multiple porphyrin components to create durable, sensitive, and efficient technologies that outperform traditional materials.
This book highlights the benefits of adopting porphyrin composites and discusses how they are used in different industrial sectors. Combining multiple porphyrin components is used to create materials with properties that are not possible with individual components, remove restrictions of water-insolubility, and ultimately lead to the development of durable and more sensitive technological materials. Composite materials have been essential to human life for thousands of years, beginning with the construction of houses by the first civilizations and advancing to modern technologies. Originating in the mid-twentieth century, composite materials show promise as a class of engineering materials that offer new opportunities for contemporary technology and have been beneficially incorporated into practically every sector due to their ability to choose elements, tune them to achieve the desired qualities, and efficiently use those features through design. Additionally, composite materials offer greater strength- and modulus-to-weight ratios than standard engineering materials. Materials based on porphyrin composites are used in a wide range of applications, including sensors, molecular probes, electrical gadgets, electronic devices, construction materials, catalysis, medicine, and environmental and energy applications.
Readers will find the book:
Provides an overview of several porphyrin composites as model materials for commercial settings;
Discusses fundamental, experimental, and theoretical research on structural and physicochemical properties of porphyrin composites;
Demonstrates how complementary and alternative material designs that use porphyrin composites have evolved;
Emphasizes important uses for cutting-edge, multipurpose materials that might contribute to a more sustainable society;
Opens new possibilities by examining the role of developing unique hybrid, composite, and higher-order hierarchical materials that may be utilized to make valuable chemicals.
Audience
Researchers, academicians, chemists, industry experts, and students working in the fields of materials and environmental sciences, engineering, textiles, biology, and medicine.
This book highlights the benefits of adopting porphyrin composites and discusses how they are used in different industrial sectors. Combining multiple porphyrin components is used to create materials with properties that are not possible with individual components, remove restrictions of water-insolubility, and ultimately lead to the development of durable and more sensitive technological materials. Composite materials have been essential to human life for thousands of years, beginning with the construction of houses by the first civilizations and advancing to modern technologies. Originating in the mid-twentieth century, composite materials show promise as a class of engineering materials that offer new opportunities for contemporary technology and have been beneficially incorporated into practically every sector due to their ability to choose elements, tune them to achieve the desired qualities, and efficiently use those features through design. Additionally, composite materials offer greater strength- and modulus-to-weight ratios than standard engineering materials. Materials based on porphyrin composites are used in a wide range of applications, including sensors, molecular probes, electrical gadgets, electronic devices, construction materials, catalysis, medicine, and environmental and energy applications.
Readers will find the book:
Provides an overview of several porphyrin composites as model materials for commercial settings;
Discusses fundamental, experimental, and theoretical research on structural and physicochemical properties of porphyrin composites;
Demonstrates how complementary and alternative material designs that use porphyrin composites have evolved;
Emphasizes important uses for cutting-edge, multipurpose materials that might contribute to a more sustainable society;
Opens new possibilities by examining the role of developing unique hybrid, composite, and higher-order hierarchical materials that may be utilized to make valuable chemicals.
Audience
Researchers, academicians, chemists, industry experts, and students working in the fields of materials and environmental sciences, engineering, textiles, biology, and medicine.
More details
Language
English
Place of publication
United States
Publishing group
John Wiley & Sons Inc
Target group
Professional and scholarly
Product notice
sewn/stitched
Cloth over boards
ISBN-13
978-1-394-21438-9 (9781394214389)
Copyright in bibliographic data and cover images is held by Nielsen Book Services Limited or by the publishers or by their respective licensors: all rights reserved.
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04/2025
1st Edition
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Persons
Umar Ali Dar, PhD, is a postdoctoral fellow at the Key Laboratory of Biobased Polymer Materials, College of Polymer Science and Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, China. He has published numerous peer-reviewed articles, books, book chapters, and collaborative projects and serves as an editorial member and reviewer for several internationally published journals. His research expertise includes polymers following organic and inorganic synthesis, particularly in the chemical modification of porphyrins, quinones, anils, and azo compounds, with significant contributions to crystal engineering, materials science, energy applications, sensors, water treatment, and drug discovery.
Mohd. Shahnawaz, PhD,is an assistant professor in the Department of Botany at Government Degree College Drass, University of Ladakh, India. He has published 25 research articles, 24 book chapters, and 16 books and serves as a reviewer and editor for several international journals. His research interests include tissue culture of medicinal plants, genetic diversity assessment of medicinal plants using high-resolution molecular marks, enhancement of plant secondary metabolite contents, and biodegradation of plastic.
Puja Gupta, PhD, is an associate professor of biotechnology at RIMT University, Mandi Gobindgarh, Punjab, with three years of teaching experience. She has published 15 research articles in international journals, 20 book chapters, and four books and participated in various conferences and workshops. Her research interests include metagenomics, microbiology, microbial genetics, and plant-microbe interactions.
Mohd. Shahnawaz, PhD,is an assistant professor in the Department of Botany at Government Degree College Drass, University of Ladakh, India. He has published 25 research articles, 24 book chapters, and 16 books and serves as a reviewer and editor for several international journals. His research interests include tissue culture of medicinal plants, genetic diversity assessment of medicinal plants using high-resolution molecular marks, enhancement of plant secondary metabolite contents, and biodegradation of plastic.
Puja Gupta, PhD, is an associate professor of biotechnology at RIMT University, Mandi Gobindgarh, Punjab, with three years of teaching experience. She has published 15 research articles in international journals, 20 book chapters, and four books and participated in various conferences and workshops. Her research interests include metagenomics, microbiology, microbial genetics, and plant-microbe interactions.
Content
Preface xxi
Part I: Overview of Porphyrins 1
1 Composite Materials Utilizing Porphyrin Template: An Overview 3
Umar Ali Dar, Shazia Nabi and Mohd Shahnawaz
1.1 Introduction 4
1.2 Development and Construction of Porphyrin Composites 5
1.2.1 Porphyrin Synthesis and Functionalization 6
1.2.2 Synthesis of Porphyrin Composites 7
1.3 Applications of Porphyrin-Based Composites 8
1.3.1 Energy 9
1.3.2 Device Materials 9
1.3.3 Remediation 9
1.3.4 Nanotechnology 9
1.3.5 Agriculture 10
1.3.6 Catalysis 10
1.4 Future Perspectives 10
1.5 Conclusion 10
References 11
2 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Porphyrin Composite Materials 19
Kishor Kumar Roy, Sudipto Mangal, Anirban Karak and Ankita Acharya
2.1 Introduction 20
2.2 Synthesis Methods for Porphyrin Composites 21
2.2.1 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) Techniques 21
2.2.2 Sol-Gel Methodology 22
2.2.3 Electrospinning and Electrochemical Deposition 22
2.2.4 Green Synthesis Approaches 24
2.2.5 Organometallic Methodologies for Synthesis 25
2.2.6 Comparative Analysis of Synthesis Techniques 26
2.3 Characterization Techniques 27
2.3.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) for Morphological Analysis 27
2.3.2 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) for Structural Investigation 28
2.3.3 Spectroscopic Techniques (UV-Vis and FTIR) for Chemical Analysis 29
2.3.4 Mechanical Testing Methods (Tensile, Compression, and Flexural) 30
2.4 Physical Properties of Porphyrin Composite Materials 30
2.4.1 Thermal Conductivity and Stability 31
2.4.2 Optical Properties and Light Absorption 32
2.4.3 Electrical Conductivity and Dielectric Properties 33
2.4.4 Magnetic Properties and Spin Dynamics 33
2.5 Mechanical Properties of Porphyrin Composite Materials 34
2.5.1 Tensile Strength and Elastic Modulus 35
2.5.2 Flexural Strength and Toughness 35
2.5.3 Impact Resistance and Fracture Toughness 36
2.5.4 Fatigue Behavior and Endurance Limit 36
2.6 Influence of Porphyrin Functionalization on Properties 37
2.6.1 Impact of Peripheral Substitution 37
2.6.2 Functional Groups and Surface Modification 37
2.6.3 Doping and Alloying Effects 37
2.6.4 Interfacial Interactions in Composite Systems 38
2.7 Applications of Porphyrin Composite Materials 38
2.7.1 Photovoltaics and Solar Cells 38
2.7.2 Sensing and Detection Technologies 39
2.7.3 Biomedical and Drug Delivery Applications 39
2.7.4 Catalysis and Environmental Remediation 40
2.8 Challenges and Future Perspectives 40
2.9 Conclusion 41
References 42
3 Porphyrin Composite Materials Analysis, Design, Manufacturing and Production 47
Elif Esra Altuner, Fatih Sen and Umar Ali Dar
3.1 Introduction 48
3.2 Porphyrin Aspects 49
3.2.1 Methods for Obtaining & Producing Porphyrins 50
3.2.1.1 Synthesis 50
3.2.1.2 Trans-Substituted Porphyrins 53
3.2.1.3 Obtaining A 2 BC Tetra-Substituted Porphyrins 53
3.3 The Analogs Design of Porphyrins 54
3.3.1 Analogs of Porphyrins 54
3.3.1.1 Chlorines and Bacteriochlorines 54
3.4 Composites 55
3.4.1 Porphyrin-Based Composites 55
3.4.2 Nano Porphyrin-Based Composites 55
3.4.3 (GQDs) and Porphyrin Composites 56
3.4.4 Graphene Oxide-Porphyrin Composites 57
3.4.5 Metalloporphyrins 57
3.5 Types of Porphyrin-Based Composites Framework 58
3.5.1 Porphyrin-Based MOFs 58
3.5.2 Porphyrin-Based COFs 59
3.5.3 Porphyrin-Based HOFs 60
3.6 Few Important Methods for Analysis of Porphyrins 61
3.6.1 Spectrophotometric Methods 61
3.6.2 Voltammetric Analysis 61
3.6.3 Analysis by HPLC Method 62
3.7 Conclusion 63
References 63
4 Advanced Characterization Methods and Characterization Types for Porphyrins 71
Elif Esra Altuner, Fatih Sen and Umar Ali Dar
4.1 Introduction 71
4.2 Types of Characterization Techniques Utilized for Porphyrins Analysis 72
4.2.1 UV-Vis Analysis and Spectrometric Properties 72
4.2.2 NMR Analysis of Porphyrins 74
4.2.3 Raman Spectroscopic Analysis of Porphyrins 74
4.3 HOMO-LUMO Relations for Porphyrins 75
4.4 Optical and Electro-Field Analysis 76
4.5 Applications in Solar Cells 76
4.6 DLS Analysis for Porphyrins 78
4.7 AFM Analysis for Porphyrins 79
4.8 Conclusion 80
References 80
Part II: Source, Design, Manufacturing, Properties and Fundamentals 87
5 Spectroscopic Nonlinear Optical Characteristics of Porphyrin-Functionalized Nanocomposite Materials 89
Vennila S., Wai Siong Chai, Kuan Shiong Khoo, Loganathan K. and Pau Loke Show
5.1 Introduction 90
5.2 Porphyrins 93
5.2.1 Chemical Characteristics of Porphyrins 94
5.3 Synthesis of Porphyrin 95
5.3.1 Adler-Longo Process of Porphyrin 95
5.3.2 Porphyrin Synthesis in Two Steps with a Single Flask at Ambient Temperature 96
5.4 Porphyrin-Functionalized Nanocomposites Materials 96
5.4.1 Porphyrin-Functionalized Nanocomposite Materials with Metal and Oxide Nanomaterials 96
5.4.2 Porphyrin-Functionalized Nanocomposite Materials with Polymers 98
5.4.3 Porphyrin-Functionalized Nanocomposite Materials with Biological Materials 99
5.4.4 Porphyrin-Functionalized Nanocomposite Materials with CNT or Carbon Fibers 99
5.5 Properties of Porphyrin-Functionalized Nanocomposite Materials 100
5.5.1 Spectral Properties 100
5.5.1.1 UV-Vis Spectroscopy 101
5.5.1.2 FTIR Spectroscopy 103
5.5.1.3 XRD Analysis 104
5.5.1.4 Fluorescence Spectroscopy 105
5.5.2 Nonlinear Optical Characteristics 105
5.6 Conclusion 106
References 107
6 Electrochemical Advancements in Porphyrin Materials: From Fundamentals to Electrocatalytic Applications 113
Alma Mejri and Abdelmoneim Mars
6.1 Introduction 114
6.2 Electrochemical Fundamentals of Porphyrin-Based Materials 115
6.2.1 Electrochemical Behavior of Porphyrin 116
6.2.2 Key Parameters Influencing Porphyrin Electrochemistry 118
6.2.3 Electrochemical Porphyrin-Based Materials 120
6.3 Porphyrin-Based Materials for Electrocatalysis Applications 124
6.3.1 Electrocatalysis Fundamentals 126
6.3.2 Porphyrin-Based Materials for CO 2 Reduction 127
6.3.3 Porphyrin-Based Materials for Electrocatalytic Water Splitting 131
6.3.3.1 Electrocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution Reaction 132
6.3.3.2 Electrocatalytic Oxygen Evolution Reaction 135
6.3.3.3 Overall Electrochemical Water Spilling 139
6.4 Conclusion and Outlooks 142
References 143
7 Manifestation of Porphyrin Composites in Variety of Photocatalytic Processes 153
Jyoti Rani, Varinder Singh and Gaurav Goel
7.1 Introduction 153
7.2 Porphyrin Composites 155
7.3 Synthesis of Porphyrin Composites 156
7.4 Photocatalytic Applications of Porphyrin Composites 156
7.4.1 Photocatalytic Production of Hydrogen Fuel by Water Splitting 158
7.4.1.1 Metal Oxides-Porphyrin Composites 159
7.4.1.2 Carbon Material-Porphyrin Composites 160
7.4.2 Photocatalytic Degradation of Dyes and Organic Pollutants 161
7.4.2.1 Conversion of CO 2 to Value-Added Chemicals 164
7.5 Conclusions 166
References 166
8 The Use of Porphyrin Composite Materials as Catalyst in a Variety of Application Sectors 173
Shagufta Parveen M. A. Ansari and Riyaz Ahmad Dar
8.1 Introduction 174
8.2 Related Works 178
8.3 Porphyrin-Based MOFs: Synthesis Methods, Structural Characteristics, and Characterization Techniques 181
8.3.1 Synthesis Methods 182
8.3.2 Structural Characteristics and Characterization Techniques 184
8.4 Design and Construction of Porphyrin-Based MOFs 185
8.4.1 Design of Porphyrin-Based MOFs 185
8.4.2 Porphyrin-Based MOF Construction 186
8.4.2.1 Porphyrin-Based MOFs with Carboxylic Acid Linkers 186
8.4.2.2 Porphyrin-Based MOFs with Nitrogen- Containing Heterocyclic Linkers 187
8.5 Application of Porphyrin-Based MOFs 188
8.5.1 PhotoCatalytic Evolution of Hydrogen 188
8.5.2 Catalytic Photolysis of CO 2 190
8.5.3 Photocatalytic Fixation of Nitrogen 192
8.5.4 Photocatalytic Removal of Pollutants 192
8.5.5 Photocatalytic Synthesis of Organic Compounds 193
8.5.6 Biosensing 194
8.5.7 Photodynamic Therapy with Porphyrin-Based MOFs 195
8.5.8 Advances in Fluorescence Imaging for Targeted Therapy 195
8.5.9 Sensing of pH 196
8.6 Conclusion and Future Scope 197
References 198
Part III: Advantages and Applications of Porphyrin Composites Materials 201
9 Porphyrin Composites Provide New Design and Building Construction Options 203
Xiaoquan Lu
9.1 Introduction 204
9.2 The Design Idea of Porphyrin Compound Material 205
9.2.1 Design and Synthesis of Porphyrins MOFs 206
9.2.2 Design and Synthesis of Porphyrin COFs 206
9.2.3 Design and Synthesis of Porphyrins HOFs 206
9.2.4 Design and Synthesis of Other Porphyrin-Based Composites 207
9.3 Construction of Porphyrin Electrochemiluminescence Molecules 208
9.3.1 Introduction to Electrochemiluminescence 208
9.3.2 Electrochemiluminescence Mechanism 208
9.3.3 Electrochemical Luminescence of Porphyrin Molecules Constructed by Molecular Regulation 210
9.3.4 Electrochemical Luminescence of Porphyrin Nanocomposites 215
9.3.5 Interfacial Electron-Induced Electrochemiluminescence 218
9.4 Construction and Characterization of Porphyrin Surface Interface Transport Molecules 219
9.4.1 Study of the Electron Transfer Process of Porphyrin at the Liquid/Liquid Interface 219
9.4.2 Study and Regulation of Photosensitized Materials and Their Models of Porphyrins 222
9.4.3 Regulation of the Porphyrin Interface 223
9.5 Composite of Porphyrins with Carbon-Based Materials 226
9.5.1 Construction of Porphyrin Functionalized Graphene Nanomaterials 226
9.5.2 Construction of Porphyrin-Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes 228
9.5.3 Construction of Porphyrin Functionalized g-C 3 N 4 230
9.5.4 Construction of Porphyrin-Functionalized Fullerenes 231
9.6 Porphyrin-Based MOFs, COFs, HOFs Porous Materials and Properties 233
9.6.1 Introduction and Application of Porphyrin MOFs 233
9.6.2 Introduction and Application of Porphyrin COFs 236
9.6.3 Brief Introduction and Application of Porphyrin HOFs 238
9.6.4 Brief Introduction and Application of Porphyrin POPs 240
9.7 Construction of Composite Materials of Porphyrins and Metal Nanoparticles 242
9.7.1 Construction and Application of Composite Materials 242
9.7.2 Construction of Porphyrin-Based Core-Shell Structure Nanomaterials 243
9.8 Properties of Porphyrin Nuclei 244
9.9 Application of Porphyrin Nuclei 244
9.10 Conclusion and Perspectives 246
Acknowledgments 247
References 247
10 A Comprehensive Review of Molecular Mechanisms Involved in Development of Porphyria, Due to Defective Porphyrin Biosynthesis in the Human Body 259
Santhosh Kumar Rajamani and Radha Srinivasan Iyer
10.1 Porphyrin Composites in Medicine - An Introduction 260
10.2 Nature of Porphyrins 260
10.3 Porphyrin Biosynthesis in Humans 260
10.4 Porphyria- Erythropoietic Disorders Due to Defects in Porphyrin Metabolism 262
10.4.1 Acute Porphyrias 263
10.4.1.1 Hepatic Porphyrias 264
10.4.2 Cutaneous Porphyrias 264
10.4.2.1 Acute Intermittent Porphyria (AIP) 265
10.4.2.2 Hereditary Coproporphyria (HCP) 266
10.4.2.3 Congenital Erythropoietic Porphyria (cep) 266
10.4.2.4 Porphyria Cutanea Tarda (PCT) 267
10.4.2.5 Variegate Porphyria (VP) 268
10.4.2.6 Erythropoietic Protoporphyria (EPP) 268
10.5 Acquired Porphyrias Due to EXCESsive Arsenic and Lead Exposure 268
10.6 Diagnosis of Porphyrias 269
10.7 Newer Therapeutics for Porphyrias: Givosiran Treatment and Afamelanotide Application 270
10.8 Conclusion 270
Bibliography 271
11 Porphyrin-Based Nanoparticles and Their Potential Scopes for Targeted Drug Delivery and Cancer Therapy 273
Prem Rajak, Sayanti Podder, Satadal Adhikary, Suchandra Bhattacharya, Saurabh Sarkar, Moutushi Mandi, Abhratanu Ganguly, Manas Paramanik and Sudip Paramanik
11.1 Introduction 274
11.2 Physico-Chemical Properties of Porphyrin and Their Advantage in Medical Science 276
11.3 Porphyrin-Based Nanoparticles (PBNPs) 279
11.3.1 Porphysome 279
11.3.2 Cerasomes 280
11.4 Porphyrin-Based Micelles 280
11.4.1 Porphyrin-Based Polymeric NPs 281
11.4.2 Nanocarriers (NCs) 281
11.5 Porphyrin-Conjugated Mesenchymal Stem Cells 282
11.6 Metal-Metalloporphyrin Frameworks (MMPFs) 282
11.7 Porphyrin-Loaded Covalent-Organic Frameworks (COFs) 282
11.8 Porphyrin-Based Noble Metallic NPs 283
11.9 Porphyrin-Based Quantum Dots 284
11.10 Implication of PBNPs in Targeted Drug Delivery 285
11.11 Potential Scope of PB-NPs in Disease Diagnosis and Treatment 288
11.12 Limitations 290
11.13 Conclusions 291
References 292
12 Role and Scope of Porphyrin Composites in Biotechnology 299
Elif Esra Altuner, Ghassan Issa, Fatih Sen and Umar Ali Dar
12.1 Introduction 300
12.2 Therapeutic Roles of Porphyrins 301
12.3 The Role of Porphyrins in Medical Imaging 303
12.3.1 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and the Role of Porphyrins 304
12.3.2 Photoacoustic Imaging (PAI) and Its Role in Porphyrins 305
12.3.3 Fluorescence Imaging and Its Role in Porphyrins 306
12.4 Bifunctional Functions of Porphyrin Conjugates 306
12.5 Conclusion 307
References 308
13 Porphyrin Composites for Energy Storage and Conversion 315
Shazia Nabi and Umar Ali Dar
13.1 Introduction 316
13.2 Porphyrin-Based Composites 318
13.2.1 Functionalization of the Porphyrin with Conducting Polymers (CPs) 319
13.2.2 Functionalization with Carbon Nanomaterials (CNMs) 320
13.2.3 Porphyrin-Based Framework Materials 322
13.3 Porphyrin Composites for Energy Storage 324
13.3.1 Porphyrin Composites as Capacitors 324
13.3.2 Porphyrin Composites as Batteries 330
13.4 Porphyrin Composites for Energy Conversion 338
13.4.1 Oxygen Evolution Reaction 341
13.4.2 Oxygen Reduction Reaction (ORR) 344
13.4.3 Carbon Dioxide Reduction Reaction (CO 2 Rr) 348
13.5 Summary and Conclusions 352
References 354
14 Porous Organic Frameworks Based on Porphyrinoids for Clean Energy 367
Kharu Nisa, Ishfaq Ahmad Lone, Waseem Arif and Preeti Singh
14.1 Introduction 368
14.2 COFs in Catalysis 368
14.3 COF-Based Organic Materials and Their Synthesis 369
14.3.1 Interfacial Synthesis 369
14.3.2 Conventional Synthetic Methods 370
14.3.3 Strategies of Multistep Synthesis (MSS) and Multicomponent Reaction (MCR) 371
14.4 Designing of Porphyrin-Based COF Catalysts 372
14.4.1 Post-Modification Methods 373
14.4.2 MOFs as Electrocatalysts for CO 2 Rr 373
14.5 Conclusion 376
Acknowledgment 377
References 377
15 Porphyrin Composite Materials as an Electrode, a Material for Thin Films and Battery Components 383
Md. Al-Riad Tonmoy, Sidur Rahman, Md. Iqbal Hossain, Abu Shahid Ahmed and A.K.M. Ahsanul Habib
15.1 Introduction 384
15.2 Porphyrin Composites as Electrode Materials 385
15.2.1 Role of the Electrode in Energy Storage Devices 385
15.2.1.1 Energy Storage 385
15.2.1.2 Charge Transfer 386
15.2.1.3 Electrode Design 388
15.2.2 Electrochemical Properties of Porphyrin Composites 389
15.2.2.1 Electron Transfer Capability 389
15.2.2.2 Catalytic Activity 390
15.2.2.3 Electroactive Sites 392
15.2.2.4 Charge Storage 392
15.2.2.5 Stability and Reversibility 393
15.2.3 Role as Electrode in Fuel Cell 394
15.2.3.1 Electrocatalyst in ORR of Fuel Cells 395
15.3 Porphyrin Composites in Battery Components 398
15.3.1 Lithium-Ion Batteries (LIB) 399
15.3.1.1 Porphyrin Composite as Cathode Materials in LIB 399
15.3.1.2 Porphyrin Composite as Anode Materials in LIB 402
15.3.2 Lithium-Sulfur Batteries 404
15.3.3 Sodium-Ion Batteries 405
15.3.4 Redox-Flow Batteries 406
15.4 Thin Films of Porphyrin Composites 408
15.4.1 Thin Film Deposition Techniques for Porphyrin Composites 408
15.4.1.1 Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) 408
15.4.1.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) 410
15.4.1.3 Comparison with PVD and CVD 411
15.5 Liquid-Phase Epitaxy (LPE) 412
15.6 Structural and Morphological Properties of Porphyrin Composite Thin Films 415
15.6.1 Electronic and Optoelectronic Properties of Porphyrin Thin Films 416
15.6.2 Electronic Band Structure and Conductivity 416
15.7 Applications of Porphyrin Thin Films in Various Sectors 417
15.7.1 Sensors 417
15.7.2 Photovoltaic (PV) Cells 419
15.8 Future Directions and Emerging Trends 420
15.9 Current State of Porphyrin Composite Research 420
15.10 Emerging Trends in Porphyrin Composite Materials 420
15.11 Future Prospects and Potential Breakthroughs 421
15.12 Conclusion 422
References 423
16 Porphyrin Composite Materials as Electronic Component: Electronic Devices and Electronic Gadgets 431
Meenakshi Patyal, Kirandeep Kaur, Nidhi Gupta and Ashok Kumar Malik
16.1 Introduction 431
16.2 Synthesis of Porphyrin and Porphyrin Composite Materials 433
16.2.1 Synthesis of Porphyrin 433
16.2.2 Synthesis of Porphyrin Composite Materials 434
16.3 Porphyrin Composite Materials for Electronic Gadgets and Devices 434
16.3.1 Porphyrin Composite-Based Metal-Organic Frameworks (PP-MOFs) 435
16.3.2 Porphyrin Composite-Based Covalent Organic Frameworks (PP-COFs) 436
16.3.3 Metal Phthalocyanine (MPc)-Based Organic Thin-Film Transistors 438
16.3.4 Metal-Based Porphyrin Composites as Functional Devices 438
16.4 Conclusions and Future Perspective 440
References 440
17 Advances of Porphyrin Composites for the Effective Adsorption and Degradation of Pollutants 443
Vemula Madhavi and A. Vijaya Bhaskar Reddy
17.1 Introduction 444
17.2 Structural Features of Porphyrin Composites 446
17.3 Synthesis and Properties of Different Porphyrin Composites 448
17.3.1 Metal-Porphyrin Composites/Metalloporphyrins 449
17.3.2 Metal-Organic Framework (MOF) Porphyrin Composites 450
17.3.3 Polymer-Based Porphyrins 451
17.3.4 Nanomaterial-Based Porphyrin 452
17.4 Porphyrin-Based Materials for Selective Adsorption of Pollutants 456
17.4.1 Adsorptive Removal of Organic Contaminants 456
17.4.2 Adsorptive Degradation of Inorganic Contaminants 460
17.5 Desorption, Regeneration, and Reusability of Porphyrin Materials 463
17.6 Concluding Remarks 464
References 465
18 Thin Film of Porphyrin for Heavy Metal Ion Sensing 473
Parul Taneja and R.K. Gupta
18.1 Introduction 474
18.2 Monolayer of Free Base Porphyrin Molecule and Its Characterization 475
18.2.1 Experimental Setup of Surface Manometry 475
18.2.2 Surface Manometry of Porphyrin Molecule 477
18.2.3 Deposition of Monolayer on Piezoelectric-Based Transducer Surface 479
18.2.4 Characterization of Porphyrin Film 480
18.3 Sensing Application of Tetraphenylporphyrin 481
18.3.1 Piezoelectric-Based Sensing Setup 481
18.3.2 Sensing of Cationic Species Using ILS Film of Porphyrin 484
18.3.3 Characterization of Sensing Layer After Interaction with Metal Ions 486
18.4 Conclusion 488
References 489
19 Porphyrin Composite in the Agriculture and Food Industries 491
Debarpan Dutta
19.1 Introduction 491
19.2 Background 493
19.3 Impact on Agriculture 494
19.3.1 Supply of Agrochemicals 494
19.3.2 Detection of Poisonous Chemicals (Toxins) 497
19.3.3 Removal of Toxins 500
19.3.4 Detection of Toxic Metal Ions 502
19.3.5 Removal of Poisonous Metal Ions 503
19.3.6 Photo-Radiated Anti-Microbial Action 504
19.4 Impact on Food Industry 506
19.4.1 Some Recent Investigations of Metal-Porphyrin Related to Food Industry 506
19.4.2 Use as Food Colorants 508
19.5 Conclusion 511
References 512
20 Porphyrin Nanocomposites for Synergistic Treatment and Diagnostics: Biostability, Biocompatibility, and Therapeutic Efficacy 519
Arindam Mitra
20.1 Introduction 520
20.2 Biostability of Porphyrin Nanocomposites 521
20.2.1 Challenges of Biostability of Porphyrin Nanocomposites 521
20.2.2 Strategies to Address the Biostability of Porphyrin Nanocomposites 522
20.2.3 Evaluation of Biostability of Porphyrin Nanocomposites 523
20.3 Biocompatibility of Porphyrin Nanocomposites 524
20.3.1 Challenges of Biocompatibility of Porphyrin Nanocomposites 524
20.3.2 Strategies to Improve the Biocompatibility of Porphyrin Nanocomposites 525
20.3.3 Assessments of Biocompatibility In Vitro and In Vivo 527
20.4 Therapeutic Efficacy of Porphyrin Nanocomposites 527
20.4.1 Diagnostics Applications of Porphyrin Composites 530
20.5 Future Perspectives and Challenges 532
20.6 Conclusions 534
References 536
21 Diversity, Stability, and Selectivity for Porphyrin-Based Composite Materials 539
Aafaq Tantray, Nitin Rode, Lina Khandare and Umar Ali Dar
21.1 Introduction 539
21.2 Diversity in Porphyrin-Based Composite Materials 541
21.2.1 Metalloporphyrins 541
21.2.2 Covalent Porphyrin Frameworks (CPF) 542
21.2.3 Porphyrin-Based Polymer Materials 542
21.2.4 Porphyrin Nanoparticles 542
21.2.5 Self-Assembled Porphyrin Materials 542
21.3 Introduction to Various Composite Materials Incorporating Porphyrins 542
21.3.1 Organic-Inorganic Hybrids 542
21.3.2 Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) 543
21.3.3 Covalent Organic Frameworks (COFs) 543
21.3.4 Polymers and Polymer Composites 543
21.4 Stability of Porphyrin-Based Composite Materials 544
21.4.1 Chemical Stability 544
21.4.2 Thermal Stability 546
21.4.3 Mechanical Stability 546
21.5 Strategies to Enhance Stability of Porphyrins 547
21.5.1 Design and Synthesis Approaches 547
21.5.2 Surface Modifications and Encapsulation Techniques 547
21.5.3 Post-Synthetic Stabilization Methods 548
21.6 Conclusions 548
References 549
22 Future Scope, Performance, Challenges, and Opportunities of Porphyrin Composite Materials 553
N. H. Vasoya and K. B. Modi
22.1 Introduction 553
22.2 Future Scope of Porphyrin Composite Materials 554
22.2.1 Enhanced Optoelectronic Properties 554
22.2.2 Advanced Energy Conversion Systems 555
22.2.3 Catalysis and Environmental Applications 556
22.2.4 Biomedical Applications and Therapeutics 558
22.2.5 Sensing and Detection 559
22.2.6 Emerging Fields and Cross-Disciplinary Applications 560
22.3 Performance Characteristics of Porphyrin Composite Materials 562
22.3.1 Optical Properties 562
22.3.2 Electrical Conductivity 564
22.3.3 Thermal Stability 565
22.3.4 Mechanical Strength and Flexibility 566
22.3.5 Chemical Stability 568
22.3.6 Charge Transfer and Transport Properties 569
22.4 Challenges in Developing Porphyrin Composite Materials 571
22.4.1 Scalability and Manufacturing Processes 571
22.4.2 Stability and Longevity 572
22.4.3 Cost-Effectiveness 574
22.4.4 Toxicity and Environmental Concerns 575
22.5 Opportunities for Porphyrin Composite Materials 577
22.5.1 Energy Conversion and Storage 577
22.5.2 Photocatalysis and Water Splitting 580
22.5.3 Environmental Remediation 581
22.5.4 Biomedical Imaging and Therapeutics 584
22.5.5 Chemical and Biological Sensing 587
22.5.6 Smart Materials and Electronics 589
22.6 Conclusion 594
References 594
Index 597
Part I: Overview of Porphyrins 1
1 Composite Materials Utilizing Porphyrin Template: An Overview 3
Umar Ali Dar, Shazia Nabi and Mohd Shahnawaz
1.1 Introduction 4
1.2 Development and Construction of Porphyrin Composites 5
1.2.1 Porphyrin Synthesis and Functionalization 6
1.2.2 Synthesis of Porphyrin Composites 7
1.3 Applications of Porphyrin-Based Composites 8
1.3.1 Energy 9
1.3.2 Device Materials 9
1.3.3 Remediation 9
1.3.4 Nanotechnology 9
1.3.5 Agriculture 10
1.3.6 Catalysis 10
1.4 Future Perspectives 10
1.5 Conclusion 10
References 11
2 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Porphyrin Composite Materials 19
Kishor Kumar Roy, Sudipto Mangal, Anirban Karak and Ankita Acharya
2.1 Introduction 20
2.2 Synthesis Methods for Porphyrin Composites 21
2.2.1 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) Techniques 21
2.2.2 Sol-Gel Methodology 22
2.2.3 Electrospinning and Electrochemical Deposition 22
2.2.4 Green Synthesis Approaches 24
2.2.5 Organometallic Methodologies for Synthesis 25
2.2.6 Comparative Analysis of Synthesis Techniques 26
2.3 Characterization Techniques 27
2.3.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) for Morphological Analysis 27
2.3.2 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) for Structural Investigation 28
2.3.3 Spectroscopic Techniques (UV-Vis and FTIR) for Chemical Analysis 29
2.3.4 Mechanical Testing Methods (Tensile, Compression, and Flexural) 30
2.4 Physical Properties of Porphyrin Composite Materials 30
2.4.1 Thermal Conductivity and Stability 31
2.4.2 Optical Properties and Light Absorption 32
2.4.3 Electrical Conductivity and Dielectric Properties 33
2.4.4 Magnetic Properties and Spin Dynamics 33
2.5 Mechanical Properties of Porphyrin Composite Materials 34
2.5.1 Tensile Strength and Elastic Modulus 35
2.5.2 Flexural Strength and Toughness 35
2.5.3 Impact Resistance and Fracture Toughness 36
2.5.4 Fatigue Behavior and Endurance Limit 36
2.6 Influence of Porphyrin Functionalization on Properties 37
2.6.1 Impact of Peripheral Substitution 37
2.6.2 Functional Groups and Surface Modification 37
2.6.3 Doping and Alloying Effects 37
2.6.4 Interfacial Interactions in Composite Systems 38
2.7 Applications of Porphyrin Composite Materials 38
2.7.1 Photovoltaics and Solar Cells 38
2.7.2 Sensing and Detection Technologies 39
2.7.3 Biomedical and Drug Delivery Applications 39
2.7.4 Catalysis and Environmental Remediation 40
2.8 Challenges and Future Perspectives 40
2.9 Conclusion 41
References 42
3 Porphyrin Composite Materials Analysis, Design, Manufacturing and Production 47
Elif Esra Altuner, Fatih Sen and Umar Ali Dar
3.1 Introduction 48
3.2 Porphyrin Aspects 49
3.2.1 Methods for Obtaining & Producing Porphyrins 50
3.2.1.1 Synthesis 50
3.2.1.2 Trans-Substituted Porphyrins 53
3.2.1.3 Obtaining A 2 BC Tetra-Substituted Porphyrins 53
3.3 The Analogs Design of Porphyrins 54
3.3.1 Analogs of Porphyrins 54
3.3.1.1 Chlorines and Bacteriochlorines 54
3.4 Composites 55
3.4.1 Porphyrin-Based Composites 55
3.4.2 Nano Porphyrin-Based Composites 55
3.4.3 (GQDs) and Porphyrin Composites 56
3.4.4 Graphene Oxide-Porphyrin Composites 57
3.4.5 Metalloporphyrins 57
3.5 Types of Porphyrin-Based Composites Framework 58
3.5.1 Porphyrin-Based MOFs 58
3.5.2 Porphyrin-Based COFs 59
3.5.3 Porphyrin-Based HOFs 60
3.6 Few Important Methods for Analysis of Porphyrins 61
3.6.1 Spectrophotometric Methods 61
3.6.2 Voltammetric Analysis 61
3.6.3 Analysis by HPLC Method 62
3.7 Conclusion 63
References 63
4 Advanced Characterization Methods and Characterization Types for Porphyrins 71
Elif Esra Altuner, Fatih Sen and Umar Ali Dar
4.1 Introduction 71
4.2 Types of Characterization Techniques Utilized for Porphyrins Analysis 72
4.2.1 UV-Vis Analysis and Spectrometric Properties 72
4.2.2 NMR Analysis of Porphyrins 74
4.2.3 Raman Spectroscopic Analysis of Porphyrins 74
4.3 HOMO-LUMO Relations for Porphyrins 75
4.4 Optical and Electro-Field Analysis 76
4.5 Applications in Solar Cells 76
4.6 DLS Analysis for Porphyrins 78
4.7 AFM Analysis for Porphyrins 79
4.8 Conclusion 80
References 80
Part II: Source, Design, Manufacturing, Properties and Fundamentals 87
5 Spectroscopic Nonlinear Optical Characteristics of Porphyrin-Functionalized Nanocomposite Materials 89
Vennila S., Wai Siong Chai, Kuan Shiong Khoo, Loganathan K. and Pau Loke Show
5.1 Introduction 90
5.2 Porphyrins 93
5.2.1 Chemical Characteristics of Porphyrins 94
5.3 Synthesis of Porphyrin 95
5.3.1 Adler-Longo Process of Porphyrin 95
5.3.2 Porphyrin Synthesis in Two Steps with a Single Flask at Ambient Temperature 96
5.4 Porphyrin-Functionalized Nanocomposites Materials 96
5.4.1 Porphyrin-Functionalized Nanocomposite Materials with Metal and Oxide Nanomaterials 96
5.4.2 Porphyrin-Functionalized Nanocomposite Materials with Polymers 98
5.4.3 Porphyrin-Functionalized Nanocomposite Materials with Biological Materials 99
5.4.4 Porphyrin-Functionalized Nanocomposite Materials with CNT or Carbon Fibers 99
5.5 Properties of Porphyrin-Functionalized Nanocomposite Materials 100
5.5.1 Spectral Properties 100
5.5.1.1 UV-Vis Spectroscopy 101
5.5.1.2 FTIR Spectroscopy 103
5.5.1.3 XRD Analysis 104
5.5.1.4 Fluorescence Spectroscopy 105
5.5.2 Nonlinear Optical Characteristics 105
5.6 Conclusion 106
References 107
6 Electrochemical Advancements in Porphyrin Materials: From Fundamentals to Electrocatalytic Applications 113
Alma Mejri and Abdelmoneim Mars
6.1 Introduction 114
6.2 Electrochemical Fundamentals of Porphyrin-Based Materials 115
6.2.1 Electrochemical Behavior of Porphyrin 116
6.2.2 Key Parameters Influencing Porphyrin Electrochemistry 118
6.2.3 Electrochemical Porphyrin-Based Materials 120
6.3 Porphyrin-Based Materials for Electrocatalysis Applications 124
6.3.1 Electrocatalysis Fundamentals 126
6.3.2 Porphyrin-Based Materials for CO 2 Reduction 127
6.3.3 Porphyrin-Based Materials for Electrocatalytic Water Splitting 131
6.3.3.1 Electrocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution Reaction 132
6.3.3.2 Electrocatalytic Oxygen Evolution Reaction 135
6.3.3.3 Overall Electrochemical Water Spilling 139
6.4 Conclusion and Outlooks 142
References 143
7 Manifestation of Porphyrin Composites in Variety of Photocatalytic Processes 153
Jyoti Rani, Varinder Singh and Gaurav Goel
7.1 Introduction 153
7.2 Porphyrin Composites 155
7.3 Synthesis of Porphyrin Composites 156
7.4 Photocatalytic Applications of Porphyrin Composites 156
7.4.1 Photocatalytic Production of Hydrogen Fuel by Water Splitting 158
7.4.1.1 Metal Oxides-Porphyrin Composites 159
7.4.1.2 Carbon Material-Porphyrin Composites 160
7.4.2 Photocatalytic Degradation of Dyes and Organic Pollutants 161
7.4.2.1 Conversion of CO 2 to Value-Added Chemicals 164
7.5 Conclusions 166
References 166
8 The Use of Porphyrin Composite Materials as Catalyst in a Variety of Application Sectors 173
Shagufta Parveen M. A. Ansari and Riyaz Ahmad Dar
8.1 Introduction 174
8.2 Related Works 178
8.3 Porphyrin-Based MOFs: Synthesis Methods, Structural Characteristics, and Characterization Techniques 181
8.3.1 Synthesis Methods 182
8.3.2 Structural Characteristics and Characterization Techniques 184
8.4 Design and Construction of Porphyrin-Based MOFs 185
8.4.1 Design of Porphyrin-Based MOFs 185
8.4.2 Porphyrin-Based MOF Construction 186
8.4.2.1 Porphyrin-Based MOFs with Carboxylic Acid Linkers 186
8.4.2.2 Porphyrin-Based MOFs with Nitrogen- Containing Heterocyclic Linkers 187
8.5 Application of Porphyrin-Based MOFs 188
8.5.1 PhotoCatalytic Evolution of Hydrogen 188
8.5.2 Catalytic Photolysis of CO 2 190
8.5.3 Photocatalytic Fixation of Nitrogen 192
8.5.4 Photocatalytic Removal of Pollutants 192
8.5.5 Photocatalytic Synthesis of Organic Compounds 193
8.5.6 Biosensing 194
8.5.7 Photodynamic Therapy with Porphyrin-Based MOFs 195
8.5.8 Advances in Fluorescence Imaging for Targeted Therapy 195
8.5.9 Sensing of pH 196
8.6 Conclusion and Future Scope 197
References 198
Part III: Advantages and Applications of Porphyrin Composites Materials 201
9 Porphyrin Composites Provide New Design and Building Construction Options 203
Xiaoquan Lu
9.1 Introduction 204
9.2 The Design Idea of Porphyrin Compound Material 205
9.2.1 Design and Synthesis of Porphyrins MOFs 206
9.2.2 Design and Synthesis of Porphyrin COFs 206
9.2.3 Design and Synthesis of Porphyrins HOFs 206
9.2.4 Design and Synthesis of Other Porphyrin-Based Composites 207
9.3 Construction of Porphyrin Electrochemiluminescence Molecules 208
9.3.1 Introduction to Electrochemiluminescence 208
9.3.2 Electrochemiluminescence Mechanism 208
9.3.3 Electrochemical Luminescence of Porphyrin Molecules Constructed by Molecular Regulation 210
9.3.4 Electrochemical Luminescence of Porphyrin Nanocomposites 215
9.3.5 Interfacial Electron-Induced Electrochemiluminescence 218
9.4 Construction and Characterization of Porphyrin Surface Interface Transport Molecules 219
9.4.1 Study of the Electron Transfer Process of Porphyrin at the Liquid/Liquid Interface 219
9.4.2 Study and Regulation of Photosensitized Materials and Their Models of Porphyrins 222
9.4.3 Regulation of the Porphyrin Interface 223
9.5 Composite of Porphyrins with Carbon-Based Materials 226
9.5.1 Construction of Porphyrin Functionalized Graphene Nanomaterials 226
9.5.2 Construction of Porphyrin-Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes 228
9.5.3 Construction of Porphyrin Functionalized g-C 3 N 4 230
9.5.4 Construction of Porphyrin-Functionalized Fullerenes 231
9.6 Porphyrin-Based MOFs, COFs, HOFs Porous Materials and Properties 233
9.6.1 Introduction and Application of Porphyrin MOFs 233
9.6.2 Introduction and Application of Porphyrin COFs 236
9.6.3 Brief Introduction and Application of Porphyrin HOFs 238
9.6.4 Brief Introduction and Application of Porphyrin POPs 240
9.7 Construction of Composite Materials of Porphyrins and Metal Nanoparticles 242
9.7.1 Construction and Application of Composite Materials 242
9.7.2 Construction of Porphyrin-Based Core-Shell Structure Nanomaterials 243
9.8 Properties of Porphyrin Nuclei 244
9.9 Application of Porphyrin Nuclei 244
9.10 Conclusion and Perspectives 246
Acknowledgments 247
References 247
10 A Comprehensive Review of Molecular Mechanisms Involved in Development of Porphyria, Due to Defective Porphyrin Biosynthesis in the Human Body 259
Santhosh Kumar Rajamani and Radha Srinivasan Iyer
10.1 Porphyrin Composites in Medicine - An Introduction 260
10.2 Nature of Porphyrins 260
10.3 Porphyrin Biosynthesis in Humans 260
10.4 Porphyria- Erythropoietic Disorders Due to Defects in Porphyrin Metabolism 262
10.4.1 Acute Porphyrias 263
10.4.1.1 Hepatic Porphyrias 264
10.4.2 Cutaneous Porphyrias 264
10.4.2.1 Acute Intermittent Porphyria (AIP) 265
10.4.2.2 Hereditary Coproporphyria (HCP) 266
10.4.2.3 Congenital Erythropoietic Porphyria (cep) 266
10.4.2.4 Porphyria Cutanea Tarda (PCT) 267
10.4.2.5 Variegate Porphyria (VP) 268
10.4.2.6 Erythropoietic Protoporphyria (EPP) 268
10.5 Acquired Porphyrias Due to EXCESsive Arsenic and Lead Exposure 268
10.6 Diagnosis of Porphyrias 269
10.7 Newer Therapeutics for Porphyrias: Givosiran Treatment and Afamelanotide Application 270
10.8 Conclusion 270
Bibliography 271
11 Porphyrin-Based Nanoparticles and Their Potential Scopes for Targeted Drug Delivery and Cancer Therapy 273
Prem Rajak, Sayanti Podder, Satadal Adhikary, Suchandra Bhattacharya, Saurabh Sarkar, Moutushi Mandi, Abhratanu Ganguly, Manas Paramanik and Sudip Paramanik
11.1 Introduction 274
11.2 Physico-Chemical Properties of Porphyrin and Their Advantage in Medical Science 276
11.3 Porphyrin-Based Nanoparticles (PBNPs) 279
11.3.1 Porphysome 279
11.3.2 Cerasomes 280
11.4 Porphyrin-Based Micelles 280
11.4.1 Porphyrin-Based Polymeric NPs 281
11.4.2 Nanocarriers (NCs) 281
11.5 Porphyrin-Conjugated Mesenchymal Stem Cells 282
11.6 Metal-Metalloporphyrin Frameworks (MMPFs) 282
11.7 Porphyrin-Loaded Covalent-Organic Frameworks (COFs) 282
11.8 Porphyrin-Based Noble Metallic NPs 283
11.9 Porphyrin-Based Quantum Dots 284
11.10 Implication of PBNPs in Targeted Drug Delivery 285
11.11 Potential Scope of PB-NPs in Disease Diagnosis and Treatment 288
11.12 Limitations 290
11.13 Conclusions 291
References 292
12 Role and Scope of Porphyrin Composites in Biotechnology 299
Elif Esra Altuner, Ghassan Issa, Fatih Sen and Umar Ali Dar
12.1 Introduction 300
12.2 Therapeutic Roles of Porphyrins 301
12.3 The Role of Porphyrins in Medical Imaging 303
12.3.1 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and the Role of Porphyrins 304
12.3.2 Photoacoustic Imaging (PAI) and Its Role in Porphyrins 305
12.3.3 Fluorescence Imaging and Its Role in Porphyrins 306
12.4 Bifunctional Functions of Porphyrin Conjugates 306
12.5 Conclusion 307
References 308
13 Porphyrin Composites for Energy Storage and Conversion 315
Shazia Nabi and Umar Ali Dar
13.1 Introduction 316
13.2 Porphyrin-Based Composites 318
13.2.1 Functionalization of the Porphyrin with Conducting Polymers (CPs) 319
13.2.2 Functionalization with Carbon Nanomaterials (CNMs) 320
13.2.3 Porphyrin-Based Framework Materials 322
13.3 Porphyrin Composites for Energy Storage 324
13.3.1 Porphyrin Composites as Capacitors 324
13.3.2 Porphyrin Composites as Batteries 330
13.4 Porphyrin Composites for Energy Conversion 338
13.4.1 Oxygen Evolution Reaction 341
13.4.2 Oxygen Reduction Reaction (ORR) 344
13.4.3 Carbon Dioxide Reduction Reaction (CO 2 Rr) 348
13.5 Summary and Conclusions 352
References 354
14 Porous Organic Frameworks Based on Porphyrinoids for Clean Energy 367
Kharu Nisa, Ishfaq Ahmad Lone, Waseem Arif and Preeti Singh
14.1 Introduction 368
14.2 COFs in Catalysis 368
14.3 COF-Based Organic Materials and Their Synthesis 369
14.3.1 Interfacial Synthesis 369
14.3.2 Conventional Synthetic Methods 370
14.3.3 Strategies of Multistep Synthesis (MSS) and Multicomponent Reaction (MCR) 371
14.4 Designing of Porphyrin-Based COF Catalysts 372
14.4.1 Post-Modification Methods 373
14.4.2 MOFs as Electrocatalysts for CO 2 Rr 373
14.5 Conclusion 376
Acknowledgment 377
References 377
15 Porphyrin Composite Materials as an Electrode, a Material for Thin Films and Battery Components 383
Md. Al-Riad Tonmoy, Sidur Rahman, Md. Iqbal Hossain, Abu Shahid Ahmed and A.K.M. Ahsanul Habib
15.1 Introduction 384
15.2 Porphyrin Composites as Electrode Materials 385
15.2.1 Role of the Electrode in Energy Storage Devices 385
15.2.1.1 Energy Storage 385
15.2.1.2 Charge Transfer 386
15.2.1.3 Electrode Design 388
15.2.2 Electrochemical Properties of Porphyrin Composites 389
15.2.2.1 Electron Transfer Capability 389
15.2.2.2 Catalytic Activity 390
15.2.2.3 Electroactive Sites 392
15.2.2.4 Charge Storage 392
15.2.2.5 Stability and Reversibility 393
15.2.3 Role as Electrode in Fuel Cell 394
15.2.3.1 Electrocatalyst in ORR of Fuel Cells 395
15.3 Porphyrin Composites in Battery Components 398
15.3.1 Lithium-Ion Batteries (LIB) 399
15.3.1.1 Porphyrin Composite as Cathode Materials in LIB 399
15.3.1.2 Porphyrin Composite as Anode Materials in LIB 402
15.3.2 Lithium-Sulfur Batteries 404
15.3.3 Sodium-Ion Batteries 405
15.3.4 Redox-Flow Batteries 406
15.4 Thin Films of Porphyrin Composites 408
15.4.1 Thin Film Deposition Techniques for Porphyrin Composites 408
15.4.1.1 Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) 408
15.4.1.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) 410
15.4.1.3 Comparison with PVD and CVD 411
15.5 Liquid-Phase Epitaxy (LPE) 412
15.6 Structural and Morphological Properties of Porphyrin Composite Thin Films 415
15.6.1 Electronic and Optoelectronic Properties of Porphyrin Thin Films 416
15.6.2 Electronic Band Structure and Conductivity 416
15.7 Applications of Porphyrin Thin Films in Various Sectors 417
15.7.1 Sensors 417
15.7.2 Photovoltaic (PV) Cells 419
15.8 Future Directions and Emerging Trends 420
15.9 Current State of Porphyrin Composite Research 420
15.10 Emerging Trends in Porphyrin Composite Materials 420
15.11 Future Prospects and Potential Breakthroughs 421
15.12 Conclusion 422
References 423
16 Porphyrin Composite Materials as Electronic Component: Electronic Devices and Electronic Gadgets 431
Meenakshi Patyal, Kirandeep Kaur, Nidhi Gupta and Ashok Kumar Malik
16.1 Introduction 431
16.2 Synthesis of Porphyrin and Porphyrin Composite Materials 433
16.2.1 Synthesis of Porphyrin 433
16.2.2 Synthesis of Porphyrin Composite Materials 434
16.3 Porphyrin Composite Materials for Electronic Gadgets and Devices 434
16.3.1 Porphyrin Composite-Based Metal-Organic Frameworks (PP-MOFs) 435
16.3.2 Porphyrin Composite-Based Covalent Organic Frameworks (PP-COFs) 436
16.3.3 Metal Phthalocyanine (MPc)-Based Organic Thin-Film Transistors 438
16.3.4 Metal-Based Porphyrin Composites as Functional Devices 438
16.4 Conclusions and Future Perspective 440
References 440
17 Advances of Porphyrin Composites for the Effective Adsorption and Degradation of Pollutants 443
Vemula Madhavi and A. Vijaya Bhaskar Reddy
17.1 Introduction 444
17.2 Structural Features of Porphyrin Composites 446
17.3 Synthesis and Properties of Different Porphyrin Composites 448
17.3.1 Metal-Porphyrin Composites/Metalloporphyrins 449
17.3.2 Metal-Organic Framework (MOF) Porphyrin Composites 450
17.3.3 Polymer-Based Porphyrins 451
17.3.4 Nanomaterial-Based Porphyrin 452
17.4 Porphyrin-Based Materials for Selective Adsorption of Pollutants 456
17.4.1 Adsorptive Removal of Organic Contaminants 456
17.4.2 Adsorptive Degradation of Inorganic Contaminants 460
17.5 Desorption, Regeneration, and Reusability of Porphyrin Materials 463
17.6 Concluding Remarks 464
References 465
18 Thin Film of Porphyrin for Heavy Metal Ion Sensing 473
Parul Taneja and R.K. Gupta
18.1 Introduction 474
18.2 Monolayer of Free Base Porphyrin Molecule and Its Characterization 475
18.2.1 Experimental Setup of Surface Manometry 475
18.2.2 Surface Manometry of Porphyrin Molecule 477
18.2.3 Deposition of Monolayer on Piezoelectric-Based Transducer Surface 479
18.2.4 Characterization of Porphyrin Film 480
18.3 Sensing Application of Tetraphenylporphyrin 481
18.3.1 Piezoelectric-Based Sensing Setup 481
18.3.2 Sensing of Cationic Species Using ILS Film of Porphyrin 484
18.3.3 Characterization of Sensing Layer After Interaction with Metal Ions 486
18.4 Conclusion 488
References 489
19 Porphyrin Composite in the Agriculture and Food Industries 491
Debarpan Dutta
19.1 Introduction 491
19.2 Background 493
19.3 Impact on Agriculture 494
19.3.1 Supply of Agrochemicals 494
19.3.2 Detection of Poisonous Chemicals (Toxins) 497
19.3.3 Removal of Toxins 500
19.3.4 Detection of Toxic Metal Ions 502
19.3.5 Removal of Poisonous Metal Ions 503
19.3.6 Photo-Radiated Anti-Microbial Action 504
19.4 Impact on Food Industry 506
19.4.1 Some Recent Investigations of Metal-Porphyrin Related to Food Industry 506
19.4.2 Use as Food Colorants 508
19.5 Conclusion 511
References 512
20 Porphyrin Nanocomposites for Synergistic Treatment and Diagnostics: Biostability, Biocompatibility, and Therapeutic Efficacy 519
Arindam Mitra
20.1 Introduction 520
20.2 Biostability of Porphyrin Nanocomposites 521
20.2.1 Challenges of Biostability of Porphyrin Nanocomposites 521
20.2.2 Strategies to Address the Biostability of Porphyrin Nanocomposites 522
20.2.3 Evaluation of Biostability of Porphyrin Nanocomposites 523
20.3 Biocompatibility of Porphyrin Nanocomposites 524
20.3.1 Challenges of Biocompatibility of Porphyrin Nanocomposites 524
20.3.2 Strategies to Improve the Biocompatibility of Porphyrin Nanocomposites 525
20.3.3 Assessments of Biocompatibility In Vitro and In Vivo 527
20.4 Therapeutic Efficacy of Porphyrin Nanocomposites 527
20.4.1 Diagnostics Applications of Porphyrin Composites 530
20.5 Future Perspectives and Challenges 532
20.6 Conclusions 534
References 536
21 Diversity, Stability, and Selectivity for Porphyrin-Based Composite Materials 539
Aafaq Tantray, Nitin Rode, Lina Khandare and Umar Ali Dar
21.1 Introduction 539
21.2 Diversity in Porphyrin-Based Composite Materials 541
21.2.1 Metalloporphyrins 541
21.2.2 Covalent Porphyrin Frameworks (CPF) 542
21.2.3 Porphyrin-Based Polymer Materials 542
21.2.4 Porphyrin Nanoparticles 542
21.2.5 Self-Assembled Porphyrin Materials 542
21.3 Introduction to Various Composite Materials Incorporating Porphyrins 542
21.3.1 Organic-Inorganic Hybrids 542
21.3.2 Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) 543
21.3.3 Covalent Organic Frameworks (COFs) 543
21.3.4 Polymers and Polymer Composites 543
21.4 Stability of Porphyrin-Based Composite Materials 544
21.4.1 Chemical Stability 544
21.4.2 Thermal Stability 546
21.4.3 Mechanical Stability 546
21.5 Strategies to Enhance Stability of Porphyrins 547
21.5.1 Design and Synthesis Approaches 547
21.5.2 Surface Modifications and Encapsulation Techniques 547
21.5.3 Post-Synthetic Stabilization Methods 548
21.6 Conclusions 548
References 549
22 Future Scope, Performance, Challenges, and Opportunities of Porphyrin Composite Materials 553
N. H. Vasoya and K. B. Modi
22.1 Introduction 553
22.2 Future Scope of Porphyrin Composite Materials 554
22.2.1 Enhanced Optoelectronic Properties 554
22.2.2 Advanced Energy Conversion Systems 555
22.2.3 Catalysis and Environmental Applications 556
22.2.4 Biomedical Applications and Therapeutics 558
22.2.5 Sensing and Detection 559
22.2.6 Emerging Fields and Cross-Disciplinary Applications 560
22.3 Performance Characteristics of Porphyrin Composite Materials 562
22.3.1 Optical Properties 562
22.3.2 Electrical Conductivity 564
22.3.3 Thermal Stability 565
22.3.4 Mechanical Strength and Flexibility 566
22.3.5 Chemical Stability 568
22.3.6 Charge Transfer and Transport Properties 569
22.4 Challenges in Developing Porphyrin Composite Materials 571
22.4.1 Scalability and Manufacturing Processes 571
22.4.2 Stability and Longevity 572
22.4.3 Cost-Effectiveness 574
22.4.4 Toxicity and Environmental Concerns 575
22.5 Opportunities for Porphyrin Composite Materials 577
22.5.1 Energy Conversion and Storage 577
22.5.2 Photocatalysis and Water Splitting 580
22.5.3 Environmental Remediation 581
22.5.4 Biomedical Imaging and Therapeutics 584
22.5.5 Chemical and Biological Sensing 587
22.5.6 Smart Materials and Electronics 589
22.6 Conclusion 594
References 594
Index 597