The Oil Palm

Preface to the fifth edition xxiv Preface to the fourth edition xxv Preface to the third edition xxvi Preface to the second edition xxvi Preface to the first edition xxvii Acknowledgements xxix Abbreviations xxxi 1. The origin and development of the oil palm industry 1 1.1 Origin of the oil palm 1 1.2 The oil palm in Africa 3 1.3 Development of the oil palm plantation industry 4 1.4 Development of the industry since 1950 6 1.5 Development methods 22 1.6 Trade in and use of oil palm products 26 2. The classification and morphology of the oil palm 30 2.1 Classification of oil palms 30 2.2 The African oil palm, E. Guineensis Jacq 30 2.3 The American oil palm, E. Oleifera (HBK) Cortes 49 2.4 The E. Guineensis X E Oleifera hybrid 51 3. The climate of the oil palm?]growing regions 53 3.1 Temperature 53 3.2 Rainfall, evaporation and water balance 55 3.3 Radiation and its effects 61 3.4 Total climate and oil palm growth 63 4. The soils of the oil palm?]growing regions 68 4.1 Soil classification in the equatorial tropics 68 4.2 Soil characteristics important for the oil palm 72 4.3 Soil characteristics unfavourable for oil palm 74 4.4 Histosols and peats 77 4.5 Soils of Asia 82 4.6 Soils of Africa 84 4.7 Soils of America 86 5. Growth, flowering and yield 89 5.1 Analysis of plant growth 89 5.2 Vegetative growth and partitioning of dry matter 100 5.3 Environmental and management factors 105 5.4 Flowering 116 5.5 Yield 127 6. Selection and breeding 138 6.1 History of selection 138 6.2 Techniques used in oil palm breeding and selection 156 6.3 Variation and inheritance 173 6.4 Methods of selection and breeding 187 6.5 Selection and breeding in practice 197 6.6 Oil palm improvement in the future 206 7. Vegetative propagation and biotechnology 208 7.1 History of oil palm tissue culture 208 7.2 Tissue?]culture methods 209 7.3 Abnormal flowering, bunch failure and other problems 212 7.4 Clone testing 216 7.5 The future for oil palm clonal propagation 219 7.6 Other aspects of oil palm biotechnology 220 8. Seed germination and nurseries 225 8.1 Seed germination 225 8.2 Nurseries 233 9. Site selection and land preparation 240 9.1 Digital technology and the oil palm plantation 240 9.2 Choice of site for oil palm planting 240 9.3 Plantation layout 250 9.4 Field preparation 255 9.5 Uses and covers of interrows 270 10. The establishment of oil palms in the field 275 10.1 Planting in the field 275 10.2 Shortening the immature period 278 10.3 Spacing of plants in the field 278 10.4 Practical aspects of field establishment 288 11. Care and maintenance of oil palms 290 11.1 Care of palms and plant cover 290 11.2 Field mechanisation 301 11.3 Irrigation 303 11.4 Assisted pollination 307 11.5 Fruit bunch harvesting 307 11.6 Oil extraction ratio 317 11.7 Palm age and replanting 320 11.8 Site potentials and plantation management 321 11.9 Smallholder plantations 327 12. Mineral nutrition of oil palms 329 12.1 General principles of plant nutrition 329 12.2 Palm uptake systems 336 12.3 Nutrient deficiency and its control: field experiments 344 12.4 Nutrient deficiency and its control: visual symptoms and leaf analysis 351 12.5 Soil composition and plant nutrition 360 12.6 Practical systems for fertiliser assessment 363 12.7 Recycling and losses of nutrients 383 12.8 Deficiencies and toxicities in special and unusual soils 391 12.9 Practical management of fertilisers 393 13. Diseases of the oil palm 399 13.1 Diseases of germinating seeds 399 13.2 Seedling diseases 401 13.3 Adult palm leaf diseases and disorders 404 13.4 Stem and root diseases 408 13.5 Diseases of the bud or stem apex 429 13.6 Diseases of the bunches and fruit 434 13.7 Other abnormal conditions 435 13.8 Plant quarantine 435 14. Pests of the oil palm 437 14.1 Integrated pest management 439 14.2 Nursery pests 442 14.3 Leaf pests of immature palms: African spear borer 443 14.4 Stem damage to young palms 443 14.5 Leaf pests of mature palms 447 14.6 Stem pests of mature palms 451 14.7 Root pests: Oil palm root miner 453 14.8 Pests attacking fruit and bunches 453 14.9 Mammals and birds as pests 454 14.10 Insect vectors of diseases 458 14.11 Pests of other components of the oil palm agroecosystem 458 15. The products of the oil palm and their extraction 460 15.1 Palm oil products and their chemical structure 460 15.2 Nut composition 464 15.3 Oil synthesis and breakdown in the fruit 464 15.4 Extraction of palm products 465 15.5 Further processing of oil palm products 478 15.6 Other oil palm products 480 16. Marketing, economics, end use and human health 483 16.1 Palm oil marketing 483 16.2 Production costs 485 16.3 Uses of palm oil and PKO 487 16.4 Palm oil and human health 492 16.5 Conclusions 494 17. Oil palm and climate change 495 17.1 Climate change 495 17.2 The role of oil palm in climate change 498 17.3 Effects of climate change on oil palm 505 18. Biofuels 507 18.1 Biofuel from oil palm 507 18.2 Biodiesel from palm oil 510 18.3 Politics and ethics of biofuel production 514 18.4 Conclusion 518 19. Oil palm and sustainability 519 19.1 The need for sustainability 519 19.1.1 Campaigns against palm oil 519 19.2 Oil palm expansion and deforestation 523 19.3 Biodiversity in plantations 528 19.4 Social aspects of oil palm development 530 19.5 Palm oil and food supplies 532 20. Concluding remarks 535 20.1 Future demand for palm oil 535 20.2 Future yields 535 20.3 Sustainability 536 Reference list and index of citations 537 Index 627