Volumetric Three-Dimensional Display Systems

FOREWORD; PREFACE; ACKNOWLEDGMENTS; LIST OF SYMBOLS; 1. VOLUMETRIC SYSTEMS AND THE PROCESS OF VISUALIZATION; 1.1 Introduction; 1.2 Volumetric Display; 1.2.1 Display System Classification; 1.2.2 Volumetric Display System Family; 1.3 An Elementary System Model; 1.4 Perception and Three-Dimensional Space; 1.4.1 Visual Acuity; 1.4.2 Temporal Perception: Flicker; 1.4.3 Illusion of Motion; 1.4.4 Summary of Some Depth Cues; 1.4.5 Considerations Relating to Volumetric Displays; 1.5 Methods of Displaying 3-D Information; 1.5.1 Display Systems and Depth Cues; 1.5.2 Monocular Displays; 1.5.3 Stereoscopic Displays; 1.5.4 Autostereoscopic Displays; 1.6 Discussion; 2. BASIC CONSIDERATIONS ON VOLUMETRIC DISPLAY UNITS; 2.1 Introduction; 2.2 Terminology; 2.3 Fundamental Image Particle: The Voxel; 2.3.1 Voxel Attributes; 2.4 Subsystems Within a Volumetric Display Unit; 2.4.1 Image Space Creation Subsystem; 2.4.2 Voxel Generation Subsystem; 2.4.3 Voxel Activation Subsystem; 2.4.4 Integration of the Subsystems; 2.5 Voxel Time Components; 2.6 Voxel Activation Capacity; 2.7 The Inclusion of the Third Dimension; 2.8 Voxel Density; 2.9 Voxel Location Capacity; 2.10 Discussion; 3. SWEPT-VOLUME DISPLAY UNITS; 3.1 Introduction; 3.2 Concerning the Display Unit; 3.2.1 The Moving Surface; 3.2.2 Swept-Volume Techniques; 3.3 Classification of Swept-Volume Display Units; 3.4 Image Space Creation by Rotational Motion; 3.4.1 Image Space Update; 3.4.2 Mechanical Considerations; 3.4.3 Uniformity of the Image Space; 3.5 Image Space Creation by Translational Motion; 3.5.1 Image Space Update; 3.5.2 Uniformity of the Image Space; 3.5.3 Mechanical Considerations; 3.5.4 Effect of Sequential Voxel Activation on a Line Segment; 3.6 Active Surface of Emission; 3.6.1 Rotational Motion; 3.6.2 Translational Motion; 3.7 Discussion; 4. BEAM-ADDRESSED SWEPT-VOLUME DISPLAY UNITS; 4.1 Introduction; 4.2 General Dead Zone Considerations; 4.2.1 Classes of Dead Zone; 4.3 Distortional Dead Zones; 4.3.1 Planar Surface Geometry; 4.3.2 Helical Surface Geometry; 4.4 Dead Zones: Further Considerations; 4.4.1 Translational Motion; 4.4.2 Rotational Motion; 4.5 Beam Registration Considerations; 4.6 Voxel Ordering Considerations; 4.7 Use of a Reflective Screen; 4.8 Discussion; 5. SWEPT-VOLUME DISPLAY UNIT DEVELOPMENT; 5.1 Introduction; 5.2 Pioneering Work: 1940-1950; 5.2.1 Rectangular Scan; 5.2.2 Petal or Spiral Scan; 5.3 Pioneering Work: 1950-1960; 5.3.1 Peritron; 5.3.2 Generescope; 5.3.3 A Volumetric CRT; 5.4 Pioneering Work: 1960-1970; 5.4.1 Volumetric CRT for Multicolor Images; 5.4.2 Projection System Employing Rotational Motion; 5.4.3 Volumetric CRT with a Curved Surface of Emission; 5.4.4 Display Unit Employing an Electroluminescent Panel; 5.5 Pioneering Work: 1970-1980; 5.5.1 Display Developed for the Reconstruction of Ultrasonograms; 5.5.2 Helix Laser 3-D Display; 5.5.3 Display Unit Employing an Active Surface of Emission; 5.5.4 TOMAX System; 5.5.5 Display Unit Employing a Rotating Mirror; 5.6 Pioneering Work: 1980-Present; 5.6.1 Display Unit Employing an Archimedes Spiral; 5.6.2 Volumetric Display System for Medical Imaging; 5.6.3 Cathode Ray Sphere; 5.6.4 Display Unit Employing a Helical Screen and CRT Projection System; 5.6.5 Image Space Viewable from Within; 5.6.6 HL3D Systems Developed for the U.S. Navy; 5.6.7 System Able to Project Volumetric Images into Free Space; 5.6.8 3-D Rotatron Display; 5.7 Discussion; 6. STATIC-VOLUME DISPLAY UNITS; 6.1 Introduction; 6.2 Classification of Static-Volume Display Units; 6.3 Voxel Visibility Lifetime; 6.4 Active Matrix Display Units; 6.5 Beam Intersection Approach; 6.5.1 Three-State Model for a Stepwise Excitation Process; 6.5.2 Optimal Pulse Timing; 6.5.3 Voxel Brightness Considerations; 6.6 Distortional Dead Zones; Optimal Beam Source Positioning; 6.6.1 Geometry; 6.6.2 Beam Source Positions That Avoid Excessive Elongation; 6.6.3 Practical Implications; 6.7 Image Space Characteristics for Beam-Addressed Systems; 6.7.1 Other Types of Dead Zone; 6.7.2 Uniformity of the Image Space; 6.7.3 Materials; 6.7.4 Color and Intensity Scale; 6.8 Considerations on Voxel Addressing; 6.9 Discussion; 7. STATIC-VOLUME DISPLAY UNIT DEVELOPMENT; 7.1 Introduction; 7.2 Pioneering Work: Pre-1940; 7.3 Pioneering Work: 1940-1950; 7.4 Pioneering Work: 1950-1960; 7.4.1 Active Matrix System Addressed by an Electron Beam; 7.4.2 Active Matrix System for Echo Ranging; 7.5 Pioneering Work: 1960-1970; 7.5.1 Voxel Generation Through the Excitation of Mercury Vapor; 7.5.2 Luminous Spot Display Device; 7.5.3 Alternative Architecture for a Passive Medium Display Unit; 7.5.4 Voxel Generation by Two-Photon Fluorescence; 7.5.5 Photochromic and Thermochromic Materials for Voxel Generation; 7.5.6 Matrix of Elements; 7.6 Pioneering Work: 1970-1980; 7.6.1 Active Matrix Display Unit Using LEDs; 7.6.2 Display Unit Employing a Particle Cloud; 7.7 Pioneering Work: 1980-Present; 7.7.1 Volumetric Systems Employing Optical Fibers; 7.7.2 Two-Step Excitation of Fluorescence Within Solid Media; 7.7.3 Volumetric Image Space Composed of Switchable Panels; 7.8 Discussion; 8. GRAPHICS ENGINE: GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS; 8.1 Introduction; 8.2 Application of Volumetric Display Systems; 8.3 Concerning Coordinate Systems; 8.4 Components within the Graphics Engine; 8.5 A Graphics Engine for use with a Swept-Volume Display; 8.5.1 Example Display Unit; 8.5.2 Processing of the Image Data by the Graphics Engine; 8.5.3 Generation of Voxel Descriptors for the TM Prototype; 8.5.4 Voxel Ordering Considerations; 8.5.5 Graphics Engine Hardware; 8.6 Discussion; 9. GRAPHICS ENGINE: FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS; 9.1 Introduction; 9.2 Characteristics of the Display Unit and Their Impact on the Graphics Engine; 9.3 Image Subspace; 9.4 Subspace Mappings; 9.4.1 Examples of Subspace Mappings; 9.4.2 Effective Image Space Volume; 9.5 Subspace in the Time Domain; 9.6 Data Throughput Issues Revisited; 9.7 Graphics Engine Architecture; 9.7.1 Data Rate Considerations; 9.7.2 Subspace Processors; 9.7.3 Image Update; 9.7.4 General Discussion; 9.8 Beam Calibration Technique; 9.8.1 Relationship Between Beam Source and Image Space Coordinate Frames; 9.8.2 First Approximation to the Transformation Matrix; 9.8.3 Interactive Refinement of the Transformation Matrix; 9.9 Discussion; 10. DISPLAY UNIT CHARACTERISTICS; 10.1 Introduction; 10.2 Voxel Attributes; 10.2.1 Voxel Size, Shape, and Definition; 10.2.2 Voxel Intensity and Color; 10.2.3 Voxel Opacity; 10.3 Voxel Placement; 10.4 Image Space Characteristics; 10.4.1 Size and Form; 10.4.2 Optical Characteristics of the Medium; 10.4.3 The Image Space: Some Practical Considerations; 10.4.4 Viewing-Angle Limitations; 10.5 Compensation for Adverse Image Space Characteristics; 10.5.1 Compensation for the Variation in Voxel Attributes; 10.5.2 Compensation for the Variation in Voxel Placement; 10.6 General-Purpose Display Unit Implementation; 10.6.1 CAD Visualization; 10.6.2 Medical Visualization; 10.6.3 3-D Television; 10.7 Linear Perspective and Hidden-Line Removal; 10.8 Discussion; 11. IMPLEMENTATION OF VOLUMETRIC SYSTEMS; 11.1 Introduction; 11.2 Research Relating to the Cathode Ray Sphere; 11.2.1 First Prototype System; 11.2.2 Subsequent Developments; 11.3 Considerations Regarding Helix Laser Technology; 11.3.1 Characteristics; 11.3.2 Development; 11.3.3 Helical Surfaces; 11.3.4 Laser Deflection and Scanning; 11.4 Laser-Addressed Multiplanar Display Apparatus; 11.5 U.S. Navy HL3D Systems; 11.5.1 Technical Objectives; 11.5.2 The Optical System; 11.5.3 Transportable Volumetric Display; 11.6 Technology Transfer; 11.7 Discussion; 12. TOWARD A HIGH-DEFINITION VOLUMETRIC DISPLAY; 12.1 Introduction; 12.2 Exhaustive Scanning of an Image Space; 12.3 Beam-Addressed Systems; 12.3.1 Beam-Addressed System Employing a Helical Screen; 12.3.2 Beam-Addressed System Employing a Planar Screen; 12.4 Hybrid Display Unit; 12.4.1 Architecture; 12.4.2 Introduction of Translational Motion; 12.5 Static-Volume Display Unit; 12.6 Localized Scanning Technique; 12.7 Direct Interaction with an Image Space; 12.7.1 Image Space Pointer; 12.8 Toward the Future; APPENDIX: HOMOGENEOUS TRANSFORMATIONS; GLOSSARY; REFERENCES; PATENTS; INDEX