The Elements of Reasoning

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Preface. Briefing. Basic Assumptions. Organization. Using This Book. 1. RECOGNIZING ARGUMENTS. What Is an Argument? Three General Considerations. Recognizing Arguments. Multiple Conclusions and Complex Arguments. Exercises. 2. ANALYZING ARGUMENTS. Showing the Structure of Arguments. Strategies of Analysis. Two Special Problems. Analyzing a Complex Argument: An Example. Exercises. 3. EVALUATING ARGUMENTS. Deductive Arguments. Exercises. Nondeductive Arguments. Complex Arguments. Exercises. Overall Argument Evaluation. Exercises. 4. SOME VALID ARGUMENT FORMS. Sentential Form. Exercises. Valid Argument Forms. Two Invalid Argument Forms. Exercises. Using the Forms to Show Validity. Exercises. Conditionals. Equivalent Forms. Exercises. Using Inference and Equivalence Rules. Deductive Proof Strategies. Exercises. 5. MORE VALID ARGUMENT FORMS: CATEGORICAL REASONING AND VENN DIAGRAMS. Categorical Statements. Exercises. Categorical Syllogisms. Exercises. 6. CAUSAL ANALYSIS. Basic Causal Relationships. Contributing Factors as "Causes." Causal Explanations. Testing Causal Claims. Experimental Trials. Exercises. 7. ARGUMENT BY ANALOGY AND MODELS. Analogical Arguments. Models. Evaluating Analogical Reasoning. Exercises. 8. ERRORS IN REASONING: FALLACIES. Fallacies in Supporting a Claim. Fallacies of Criticism and Response. Exercises. 9. DEFINITION. Definition of "Definition." Two Types of Definition. Methods of Definition. Standards of Definition. Working Out a Definition. Exercises. 10. VAGUENESS AND AMBIGUITY. Vagueness. Ambiguity. Exercises. 11. REASONABLE BELIEFS. Granted Claims and Acceptable Beliefs. New Claims, Background Beliefs, and Rationality. Exercises. 12. RULES FOR WRITING. Structure. Style. Exercises: Some Answers, Hints, and Comments. Index.