Principles and Applications to Tribology

About the Author xv Foreword xvii Series Preface xix Preface to Second Edition xxi Preface to First Edition xxiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Definition and History of Tribology 1 1.2 Industrial Significance of Tribology 3 1.3 Origins and Significance of Micro/Nanotribology 4 1.4 Organization of the Book 6 References 7 2 Structure and Properties of Solids 9 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 Atomic Structure, Bonding and Coordination 9 2.2.1 Individual Atoms and Ions 9 2.2.2 Molecules, Bonding and Atomic Coordination 13 2.3 Crystalline Structures 33 2.3.1 Planar Structures 33 2.3.2 Nonplanar Structures 39 2.4 Disorder in Solid Structures 41 2.4.1 Point Defects 41 2.4.2 Line Defects (Dislocations) 41 2.4.3 Surfaces/Internal Boundaries 44 2.4.4 Solid Solutions 45 2.5 Atomic Vibrations and Diffusions 45 2.6 Phase Diagrams 46 2.7 Microstructures 48 2.8 Elastic and Plastic Deformation, Fracture and Fatigue 49 2.8.1 Elastic Deformation 51 2.8.2 Plastic Deformation 53 2.8.3 Plastic Deformation Mechanisms 56 2.8.4 Fracture 62 2.8.5 Fatigue 68 2.9 Time-Dependent Viscoelastic/Viscoplastic Deformation 74 2.9.1 Description of Time-Dependent Deformation Experiments 77 Problems 80 References 81 Further Reading 82 3 Solid Surface Characterization 83 3.1 The Nature of Surfaces 83 3.2 Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Surface Layers 84 3.2.1 Deformed Layer 84 3.2.2 Chemically Reacted Layer 85 3.2.3 Physisorbed Layer 86 3.2.4 Chemisorbed Layer 87 3.2.5 Surface Tension, Surface Energy, and Wetting 87 3.2.6 Methods of Characterization of Surface Layers 90 3.3 Analysis of Surface Roughness 90 3.3.1 Average Roughness Parameters 92 3.3.2 Statistical Analyses 99 3.3.3 Fractal Characterization 125 3.3.4 Practical Considerations in the Measurement of Roughness Parameters 127 3.4 Measurement of Surface Roughness 131 3.4.1 Mechanical Stylus Method 133 3.4.2 Optical Methods 137 3.4.3 Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM) Methods 155 3.4.4 Fluid Methods 163 3.4.5 Electrical Method 166 3.4.6 Electron Microscopy Methods 166 3.4.7 Analysis of Measured Height Distribution 168 3.4.8 Comparison of Measurement Methods 168 3.5 Closure 174 Problems 175 References 176 Further Reading 179 4 Contact between Solid Surfaces 181 4.1 Introduction 181 4.2 Analysis of the Contacts 182 4.2.1 Single Asperity Contact of Homogeneous and Frictionless Solids 182 4.2.2 Single Asperity Contact of Layered Solids in Frictionless and Frictional Contacts 199 4.2.3 Multiple Asperity Dry Contacts 209 4.3 Measurement of the Real Area of Contact 251 4.3.1 Review of Measurement Techniques 251 4.3.2 Comparison of Different Measurement Techniques 255 4.3.3 Typical Measurements 259 4.4 Closure 262 Problems 264 References 265 Further Reading 269 5 Adhesion 271 5.1 Introduction 271 5.2 Solid-Solid Contact 272 5.2.1 Covalent Bond 276 5.2.2 Ionic or Electrostatic Bond 276 5.2.3 Metallic Bond 277 5.2.4 Hydrogen Bond 278 5.2.5 Van der Waals Bond 278 5.2.6 Free Surface Energy Theory of Adhesion 279 5.2.7 Polymer Adhesion 287 5.3 Liquid-Mediated Contact 288 5.3.1 Idealized Geometries 290 5.3.2 Multiple-Asperity Contacts 305 5.4 Closure 316 Problems 317 References 317 Further Reading 320 6 Friction 321 6.1 Introduction 321 6.2 Solid-Solid Contact 323 6.2.1 Rules of Sliding Friction 323 6.2.2 Basic Mechanisms of Sliding Friction 328 6.2.3 Other Mechanisms of Sliding Friction 349 6.2.4 Friction Transitions During Sliding 354 6.2.5 Static Friction 356 6.2.6 Stick-Slip 358 6.2.7 Rolling Friction 362 6.3 Liquid-Mediated Contact 366 6.4 Friction of Materials 369 6.4.1 Friction of Metals and Alloys 371 6.4.2 Friction of Ceramics 375 6.4.3 Friction of Polymers 380 6.4.4 Friction of Solid Lubricants 383 6.5 Closure 392 Problems 396 References 397 Further Reading 400 7 Interface Temperature of Sliding Surfaces 403 7.1 Introduction 403 7.2 Thermal Analysis 404 7.2.1 Fundamental Heat Conduction Solutions 405 7.2.2 High Contact-Stress Condition (Ar /Aa ~ 1) (Individual Contact) 406 7.2.3 Low Contact-Stress Condition (Ar /Aa I 1) (Multiple-Asperity Contact) 415 7.3 Interface Temperature Measurements 431 7.3.1 Thermocouple and Thin-Film Temperature Sensors 431 7.3.2 Radiation Detection Techniques 434 7.3.3 Metallographic Techniques 440 7.3.4 Liquid Crystals 441 7.4 Closure 442 Problems 444 References 444 8 Wear 447 8.1 Introduction 447 8.2 Types of Wear Mechanisms 448 8.2.1 Adhesive Wear 448 8.2.2 Abrasive Wear (by Plastic Deformation and Fracture) 459 8.2.3 Fatigue Wear 475 8.2.4 Impact Wear 484 8.2.5 Chemical (Corrosive) Wear 493 8.2.6 Electrical Arc-Induced Wear 495 8.2.7 Fretting and Fretting Corrosion 497 8.3 Types of Particles Present in Wear Debris 499 8.3.1 Plate-Shaped Particles 499 8.3.2 Ribbon-Shaped Particles 499 8.3.3 Spherical Particles 500 8.3.4 Irregularly Shaped Particles 503 8.4 Wear of Materials 503 8.4.1 Wear of Metals and Alloys 505 8.4.2 Wear of Ceramics 510 8.4.3 Wear of Polymers 517 8.5 Closure 522 Appendix 8.A Indentation Cracking in Brittle Materials 525 8.A.1 Blunt Indenter 526 8.A.2 Sharp Indenter 526 Appendix 8.B Analysis of Failure Data Using the Weibull Distribution 532 8.B.1 General Expression of the Weibull Distribution 532 8.B.2 Graphical Representation of a Weibull Distribution 534 Problems 538 References 539 Further Reading 543 9 Fluid Film Lubrication 545 9.1 Introduction 545 9.2 Regimes of Fluid Film Lubrication 546 9.2.1 Hydrostatic Lubrication 546 9.2.2 Hydrodynamic Lubrication 546 9.2.3 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication 548 9.2.4 Mixed Lubrication 549 9.2.5 Boundary Lubrication 549 9.3 Viscous Flow and the Reynolds Equation 550 9.3.1 Viscosity and Newtonian Fluids 550 9.3.2 Fluid Flow 555 9.4 Hydrostatic Lubrication 569 9.5 Hydrodynamic Lubrication 579 9.5.1 Thrust Bearings 581 9.5.2 Journal Bearings 594 9.5.3 Squeeze Film Bearings 613 9.5.4 Gas-Lubricated Bearings 616 9.6 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication 632 9.6.1 Forms of Contacts 633 9.6.2 Line Contact 634 9.6.3 Point Contact 644 9.6.4 Thermal Correction 645 9.6.5 Lubricant Rheology 646 9.7 Closure 647 Problems 649 References 650 Further Reading 652 10 Boundary Lubrication and Lubricants 655 10.1 Introduction 655 10.2 Boundary Lubrication 656 10.2.1 Effect of Adsorbed Gases 658 10.2.2 Effect of Monolayers and Multilayers 659 10.2.3 Effect of Chemical Films 662 10.2.4 Effect of Chain Length (or Molecular Weight) 664 10.3 Liquid Lubricants 665 10.3.1 Principal Classes of Lubricants 665 10.3.2 Physical and Chemical Properties of Lubricants 671 10.3.3 Additives 680 10.4 Ionic Liquids 681 10.4.1 Composition of Ionic Liquids 682 10.4.2 Properties of Ionic Liquids 684 10.4.3 Lubrication Mechanisms of ILs 685 10.4.4 Issues on the Applicability of Ionic Liquids as Lubricants 685 10.5 Greases 686 10.6 Closure 686 References 687 Further Reading 688 11 Nanotribology 689 11.1 Introduction 689 11.2 SFA Studies 691 11.2.1 Description of an SFA 692 11.2.2 Static (Equilibrium), Dynamic, and Shear Properties of Molecularly Thin Liquid Films 694 11.3 AFM/FFM Studies 703 11.3.1 Description of AFM/FFM and Various Measurement Techniques 704 11.3.2 Surface Imaging, Friction, and Adhesion 712 11.3.3 Wear, Scratching, Local Deformation, and Fabrication/Machining 741 11.3.4 Indentation 752 11.3.5 Boundary Lubrication 758 11.4 Atomic-Scale Computer Simulations 773 11.4.1 Interatomic Forces and Equations of Motion 773 11.4.2 Interfacial Solid Junctions 775 11.4.3 Interfacial Liquid Junctions and Confined Films 776 11.5 Closure 778 References 781 Further Reading 788 12 Friction and Wear Screening Test Methods 789 12.1 Introduction 789 12.2 Design Methodology 789 12.2.1 Simulation 790 12.2.2 Acceleration 790 12.2.3 Specimen Preparation 790 12.2.4 Friction and Wear Measurements 791 12.3 Typical Test Geometries 794 12.3.1 Sliding Friction and Wear Tests 794 12.3.2 Abrasion Tests 797 12.3.3 Rolling-Contact Fatigue Tests 799 12.3.4 Solid-Particle Erosion Test 799 12.3.5 Corrosion Tests 800 12.4 Closure 802 References 802 Further Reading 803 13 Bulk Materials, Coatings, and Surface Treatments for Tribology 805 13.1 Introduction 805 13.2 Bulk Materials 806 13.2.1 Metals and Alloys 808 13.2.2 Ceramics and Cermets 826 13.2.3 Ceramic-Metal Composites 840 13.2.4 Solid Lubricants and Self-Lubricating Solids 841 13.3 Coatings and Surface Treatments 861 13.3.1 Coating Deposition Techniques 864 13.3.2 Surface Treatment Techniques 885 13.3.3 Criteria for Selecting Coating Material/Deposition and Surface Treatment Techniques 890 13.4 Closure 892 References 892 Further Reading 896 14 Tribological Components and Applications 899 14.1 Introduction 899 14.2 Common Tribological Components 899 14.2.1 Sliding-Contact Bearings 899 14.2.2 Rolling-Contact Bearings 901 14.2.3 Seals 903 14.2.4 Gears 905 14.2.5 Cams and Tappets 907 14.2.6 Piston Rings 908 14.2.7 Electrical Brushes 910 14.3 MEMS/NEMS 912 14.3.1 MEMS 914 14.3.2 NEMS 921 14.3.3 BioMEMS 921 14.3.4 Microfabrication Processes 922 14.4 Material Processing 923 14.4.1 Cutting Tools 923 14.4.2 Grinding and Lapping 927 14.4.3 Forming Processes 927 14.4.4 Cutting Fluids 928 14.5 Industrial Applications 930 14.5.1 Automotive Engines 930 14.5.2 Gas Turbine Engines 932 14.5.3 Railroads 934 14.5.4 Magnetic Storage Devices 935 14.6 Closure 942 References 943 Further Reading 947 15 Green Tribology and Biomimetics 949 15.1 Introduction 949 15.2 Green Tribology 949 15.2.1 Twelve Principles of Green Tribology 950 15.2.2 Areas of Green Tribology 951 15.3 Biomimetics 954 15.3.1 Lessons from Nature 955 15.3.2 Industrial Significance 958 15.4 Closure 959 References 959 Further Reading 961 Appendix A Units, Conversions, and Useful Relations 963 A.1 Fundamental Constants 963 A.2 Conversion of Units 963 A.3 Useful Relations 964 Index 965