Brain Function and Oscillations

I. Dynamics of Electrical Signals in the Animal Brain.- 1. Dynamics of Potentials in the Visual and Auditory Pathway, Hippocampus, and Reticular Formation of the Cat Brain.- 1.1 Surgery, Experimental Conditions, and Raw EEG.- 1.2 Sensory Pathways in the Cat Brain.- 1.3 Evoked Potentials to Auditory Stimulation in the Cat Brain - Time Domain.- 1.4 Evoked Potentials to Visual Stimulation in the Cat Brain - Time Domain.- 1.5 Amplitude-Frequency Characteristics Obtained with Auditory Stimulation.- 1.5.1 Auditory Cortex.- 1.5.2 Medial Geniculate Nucleus.- 1.5.3 Mesencephalic Reticular Formation.- 1.5.4 Inferior Colliculus.- 1.5.5 Hippocampus.- 1.5.6 Cerebellar Cortex.- 1.6 Amplitude-Frequency Charateristics: Visual Stimulation.- 1.6.1 "Filtered Potentials".- 1.7 Coherence Functions Between All Possible Pairings of Recording Electrodes-Auditory Stimulation.- 1.8 Phase Synchronization Demonstrated by Phase Spectra - Auditory Stimulation.- 1.9 Coherence Functions Between All Possible Pairings of Recording Electrodes-Visual Stimulation.- 1.10 Phase Synchronization Demonstrated by Phase Spectra - Visual Stimulation.- 2. Cross-Modality Experiments on the Cat Brain.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 What Are Multimodal Recognition and Cross-Modality Attention? View of Hartline.- 2.3 The Present Chapter Combines Cross-Modality Experiments, Frequency Analysis, and Wavelet Transform Approaches.- 2.4 Results.- 2.4.1 Averaged EPs (Single Animal, Grand Average).- 2.4.2 Amplitude-Frequency Characteristics.- 2.4.3 Results of Digital Filtering.- 2.4.4 Results of Wavelet Analysis of EPs.- 2.4.5 Statistical Comparison of Results of Wavelet and Frequency Analysis.- 2.5 Single-Trial Analysis of EPs.- 2.5.1 Example of Single-Trial Analysis.- 2.5.2 Wavelet Analysis of Single-Trials.- 2.6 Physiological Implications of Cross-Modality Experiments.- 2.6.1 Hippocampus Is a Supramodal Center.- 2.6.2 Possible Functional Roles of Evoked Alpha Oscillations.- 2.7 EP/ERP Frequency Components - "Real Components" Related to Psychophysiological Functions.- 2.8 Monomodal vs. Bimodal Stimulation.- 3. Selectively Distributed Gamma-Band Responses Studied in Cortex, Reticular Formation, Hippocampus, and Cerebellum.- 3.1 Gamma Responses to Auditory Stimuli Recorded from Various Structures.- 3.2 Gamma Responses to Visual Stimuli Recorded from Various Structures.- 3.3 Gamma Responses - Multiple Functional Correlates.- 4. Highest Frequency Range in Reticular Formation and Inferior Colliculus (100-1000 Hz).- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Selectively Averaged Transient Evoked Potentials.- 4.3 Amplitude-Frequency Characteristics.- 4.4 Consistent Selectivities in the Highest Frequency?.- 4.5 Very High Frequency Responses in the Human Brain.- 5. The Brain of the Sleeping Cat: Dynamics of Electrical Signals.- 5.1 Some Sleep Stages of the Cat.- 5.1.1 Spindle Sleep Stage.- 5.1.2 Slow Wave Sleep Stage.- 5.2 Evoked Potentials During Sleep Stages.- 5.3 Amplitude-Frequency Characteristics During Sleep Stages.- 5.3.1 Spindle Sleep (SS) Stage.- 5.3.2 Slow Wave Sleep (SWS) Stage.- 5.4 Application of Combined Analysis Procedure to the Spontaneous and Evoked Activities.- 5.4.1 Simultaneously Recorded and Filtered.- EEG-EP Epochs (1-45 Hz).- 5.4.2 The Coherence Functions Between All Possible Pairings of Recording Electrodes.- 5.5 Further Comments on the Component Analysis and the Real Responses in Evoked Potentials.- 5.6 Interpretation of Results on Stereodynamics in the Auditory Pathway During the Slow Wave Sleep Stage.- 5.6.1 Synchronization and Coupling of Resonances in the Responses of Various Brain Centers in Alpha and Beta Frequency Ranges.- 5.7 Human Frequency Responses During SWS Sleep.- 6. Dynamics of Potentials from Invertebrate Brains.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Anatomy and Physiology of the Invertebrate (Gastropods) Nervous System.- 6.2.1 The Abdominal Ganglia Complex.- 6.2.2 The Pedal and Buccal Ganglia.- 6.2.3 Microscopic Anatomy.- 6.3 Materials and Methods.- 6.4 Results.- 6.4.1.Ongoing Compound Field Potentials.- 6.4.2 Spikes.- 6.4.3 Relationship Between EEG of Vertebrates and Field Potential Fluctuations of Invertebrates.- 6.5 Potentials Evoked by Means of Electrical Stimulation.- 6.5.1 Aplysia.- 6.5.2 Helix Pomatia.- 6.6 Gamma (30-50 Hz) Activity.- 6.7 Neurochemical Modulation.- 9.8 Unsolved Problems.- 7. Dynamics of Potentials from the Brain of Anamniotes (Vertebrates).- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Methods.- 7.2.1 Ray.- 7.2.2 Goldfish.- 7.3 Results.- 7.3.1 Ray.- 7.3.2 Goldfish.- 7.4 The Reasons for Neuroethological Comparison.- 7.5 Similarities and Differences.- 7.5.1 Unsolved Questions.- 8. Frequency Response of the Cat Brain Is Influenced by Pharmacological Agents.- 8.1 Effects of Ceruletide in the Brain.- 8.2 Methodological Remarks on Experiments with Pharmacological Agents (Haloperidol, Neostigmine, Acetylcholine).- 8.2.1 Experimental Procedure and Data Analysis.- 8.3 Auditory EPs (AEPs) upon Application of Cerulein, Haloperidol, and Neostigmine.- 8.3 Amplitude-Frequency Characteristics.- 8.5 Interpretation of Pharmacologically Induced Changes by Application of Cerulein, Neostigmine, and Haloperidol.- 8.6 The Utility of Frequency Analysis to Neuropharmacological research.- II. The Human Brain: Dynamics of EEG, Evoked Potentials, and MEG.- 9. Evoked Alpha and Theta Responses in Humans to Auditory and Visual Stimuli.- 9.1 Subjects, Methods, Environment.- 9.1.1 Evoked Potentials: Auditory and Visual Stimuli.- 9.1.2 Frequency-Domain Approach to Evoked Potentials..- 9.1.3 Component Analysis by Means of Digital Band-Pass Filtering.- 9.2 Brain Resonance Phenomena and their Manifestation in Evoked Potentials.- 9.3 Single EEG-EP Epochs, Averaged EPs, and AFCs for the Study of Brain Resonance Phenomena.- 9.4 Functional Correlates of Theta and Alpha EP Components in Responses to Inadequate and Adequate Stimuli.- 9.5 Prospective and Future Research.- 9.6 Conclusions.- 10. "Cross-Modality" Experiments in Humans.- 10.1 Analysis of Evoked Potentials and Their Frequency Characteristics: Auditory and Visual Stimuli.- 10.2 Filtered Evoked Potentials.- 10.3 Cross-Modality Responses Analyzed with Single EEG-EP Sweeps.- 10.4 Immediate Interpretation of Cross-Modality Experiments.- 10.5 Cat Intracranial Recordings Support the Result from Human Data.- 10.6 Physiological Implications of "Cross-Modality" Experiments: Possible Functional Roles of Induced Rhythmicities.- 10.7 Responses to Adequate and Inadequate Stimuli in MEG Recordings in Human Subjects.- 10.8 Further Thoughts Concerning Functional Correlates of Theta and Alpha Responses.- 11. The Bisensory Evoked Theta Response - A Correlate of Supramodal Association?.- 12. Evoked Delta Oscillations on the Hearing Threshold.- 12.1 Slow Wave Oscillations at Hearing Level: An Individual Experiment.- 12.2 AEP Investigations at the Threshold Level.- 12.3 Experimental Procedure.- 12.3.1 The Threshold Experiment:.- 12.4 Brain Response to Auditory Stimuli with Different Intensities.- 12.4.1 Time Domain Averages.- 12.4.2 Digitally Filtered AEPs.- 12.4.3 Grand Average Amplitude-Frequency Analysis.- 12.4.4 Selectively Filtered Auditory EPs.- 12.4.5 Frequency Distribution in Single Subjects.- 12.5 Has the Frequency Shift a Sensory-Cognitive Interpretation?..- 12.5.1 Possible Origin of the Delta Response.- 12.5.2 The Decision-Memory System.- 13. Evoked Oscillations in Magnetoencephalography.- 13.1 Technical Remarks and Advantages of MEG.- 13.2 Neural Currents Underlying the ECD.- 13.3 The Electric and Magnetic Alpha: A Comparative Study of Auditory and Visual Evoked Fields.- 13.4 Evoked Fields to Sensory Stimulation: Alpha Response.- 13.4.1 Methods.- 13.5 Human MEG Responses - Temporoparietal Versus Occipital Alpha and Delta-Theta Responses.- 13.6 Evidence of 10 Hz and 5 Hz Evoked Magnetic Rhythm.- III. Cognitive Processes.- 14. Selective Attention and Memory: Neurophysiology and Cognitive Psychology.- 14.1 Background and Perspective.- 14.2 Comparative Studies.- 14.3 Concept of Selective Attention and P300.- 14.4 Visual Selective Attention.- 14.4.1 Selective Attention: Experiments with Monkeys.- 14.5 Stages of Memory Processing: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval.- 14.6 Encoding and Sensory Register.- 14.7 Memory.- 14.7.1 Short-Term Memory.- 14.7.2 Long-Term Memory.- 14.8 Pattern Recognition.- 15. Memory Templates in Event-Related Oscillations, P300, MMN.- 15.1 Remarks on Family of P300 Responses: ERPs.- 15.2 Experimental Setup and Paradigms.- 15.2.1 Paradigm 1 - Oddball.- 15.2.2 Paradigm 2 - Oddball with Increased Certainty of Alternating Targets.- 15.3 Frequency Analysis of ERPs: Preliminary Results.- 15.3.1 Comparative Analysis of Poststimulus Frequency Changes Under Different Experimental Conditions and Their Contribution to Different Latency Peaks.- 15.3.2 Formation of Peaks.- 15.3.3 Comparison of ERP Responses to Regular and Random Infrequent Target Stimuli.- 15.4 Orientation Reaction and Learning During Repetitive Stimulation.- 15.5 Analysis of Pre- and Poststimulus Activity in Single Sweeps: "Preparation Rhythms".- 15.6 Event-Related Theta Oscillations.- 15.7 Event-Related 10 Hz Oscillations.- 15.8 The Modulation of P300 Activity by Preparation Rhythms.- 15.9 P300, Prestimulus EEG Activity and Their Relation.- to Short-Term Memory: Memory Templates.- 15.10 Theta and Alpha Oscillations in Klimesch's Memory Model.- 15.11 Habituation.- 15.12 Appendix: Frequency Analysis of MMN.- 15.12.1 MMN Formation of Peaks.- 16. Dynamics of Compound Potentials (P300) in Freely Moving Cats.- 16.1 Introduction.- 16.2 Methods and Paradigms Utilized for Obtaining P300 from Freely Moving Cats.- 16.3 Systematic Analysis of the Effect of Omission Rate on ERPs Recorded from the Cat Hippocampus.- 16.4 Utility of Analysis in the Frequency Domain.- 16.5 Multiple Electrodes in the Hippocampus.- 16.6 Hippocampal P300 and Its Cognitive Correlates: The Theta Component in the CA3 Layer.- 17. The Compound P300-40Hz Response of the Cat Hippocampus.- 17.1 The P30-40 Hz Compound Potential.- 17.2 Gamma Activity in Earlier Studies.- 18. Event-Related Potentials During States of High Expectancy: Results on the Cat Hippocampus, Cortex, and Reticular Formation.- 18.1 Neuronal Activity of the Hippocampus During learning, Searching, and Decision Making.- 18.1.1 Unit Activity and Behavior.- 18.1.2 Multiple Sensory-Behavioral Correlates in Single Neurons - Theta Cells in the Hippocampus: View of Ranck.- 18.1.3 Training-Induced Increase in Hippocampal Unit Activity: View of Thompson.- 18.1.4 Signal Detection in the Hippocampus.- 18.2 Event-Related Potentials in Cortex and Hippocampus in a P300-like Paradigm.- 18.3 Frequency Responses During States of "High Expectancy".- 18.3.1 Time-Domain Analysis of the Responses to the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th Stimuli Preceding the Omitted Stimulus.- 18.3.2 Frequency-Domain Analysis by Means of the AFCs.- 18.3.3 The Differences Between AFCs of Responses to 1st, 2nd, and 4th Stimuli Preceding the Omitted Stimulus.- 18.3.4 Adaptive Digital Filtering of the Responses and Statistical Testing of the Results.- 18.4 Selectively Distributed Theta System of the Brain: The Limbic, Frontal, and Parietal Areas Are Mainly Involved.- 18.4.1 Frequency Selectivity of the Amplitude Enhancements in Hippocampus.- 18.4.2 Comments on the Anatomical and Physiological Links Between the Hippocampal Formation and the Association Areas of the Neocortex.- 18.4.3 The Integrative Analysis of the Increased Theta Response in the Brain: Diffuse Theta Response System in the Brain.- 18.5 Interpretation of Changes in ERPs.- 18.6 Why We Compare EP Results with Conventional Experiments on Hippocampus.- 19. Event-Related Potentials During States of High Expectancy and Attention in Human Subjects.- 19.1 Selective Theta Distribution.- 19.2 Experimental Paradigm.- 19.3 ERPs to Repetitive Stimuli.- 19.3.1 Averaged Responses.- 19.3.2 Adaptive Filtering of Respectively Applied Evoked Responses.- 19.4 Increase in Theta Components Is Highest in Frontal Recordings.- 19.5 In Visual Modality the Secondary Dominant Theta Increase Occurs in the Parietal Recordings.- 19.6 The Cognitive Theta Components of ERPs as a Sign of Hippocampocortical Interaction.- 19.7 Concluding Remarks.- 20. Topological Distribution of Oddball "P300" Responses.- 20.1 Experimental Paradigm.- 20.2 Topological Differences Between AFCs of AEPs.- 20.3 Differences Between Time-Domain Grand Averages and AFCs of Responses in the Three Paradigms.- 20.4 Adaptive Filtering of the Responses.- 20.5 The "Selectively Distributed Theta-Response System in the Brain" and the Corticohippocampal Interaction.- 20.6 Paradigms Used.- 20.6.1 Oddball Paradigm.- 20.6.2 Paradigm with Omitted Fourth Signal and to-Be-Attended 3rd Signal.- 21. Wavelet Analysis of Oddball P300.- 21.1 Results.- 21.2 The P300 Wave Can Be Detected in the Single-Trial ERPs by the Spline Wavelet Coefficients in the Delta Frequency Range.- 21.3 The Response-Based Classification of the ERP Trials Yields Enhanced P300 Amplitudes Compared with the Average of the Target Responses.- 21.4 A Functional Interpretation.- 21.5 The Number of Sweeps Containing a P300 Wave May Be Used as an Additional Measure in ERP Analysis.- 22. Dynamic Memory Manifested by Induced Alpha.- 22.1 Why Look for Internal Event-Related Oscillations?.- 22.2 Coherent and Ordered States of EEG due to Cognitive Tasks.- 22.2.1 Preliminary Experiments and Method.- 22.2.2 Preliminary Results in Special Cases.- 22.2.3 Global Trends of Pretarget Event-Related Rhythms. Expectation and Reaction of Subjects; Subject Variability.- 22.3 Paradigms with Increasing Probability of Occurrence.- 22.4 Experiments with Light Stimulation.- 22.4.1 Examples of Experiments with Varied Probabilities of Stimulus Occurrence.- 22.5 Long-Standing Experiments with Subject A.F.- 22.6 Quasi-deterministic EEG, Cognitive States, Dynamic Memory 318 22.6.1 What Is New in the "Dynamics of Time-Locked EEG Patterns".- 22.7 Appendix.- 23. Event-Related Oscillations as a Strategy in Cognition Research.- 23.1 Generalization of Cognitive Responses: Advantages of the Brain Dynamics Research Program and the Concept of Event-Related Oscillations.- 23.2 Component Analysis Towards Functional Understanding During Cognitive Processes.- IV. Integrative Systems in Brain Function.- 24. Functional Alphas Selectively Distributed in the Brain - A Theory.- 24.1 The EEG 10 Hz Band Rhythms Classified.- 24.2 Why the Expression "Alphas"?.- 24.3 Alphas and Alpha Activity Revisited.- 24.4 Some Physiologically Based Theories on the Generation of Alpha Rhythms.- 24.4.1 The Facultative Pacemaker Theory.- 24.4.2 The Scope of Lopes da Silva and Coworkers.- 24.4.3 Survey by Andersen and Andersson.- 24.5 Multifunctional and Selectively Distributed 10 Hz Oscillations - A New Survey.- 24.6 Secondary Alpha Response or Alpha Response with Delay..- 24.7 Synopsis on Multiple Functions of "Alphas".- 24.7.1 Memory Mechanisms and Alpha.- 24.7.2 Alpha as Sensory Response.- 24.7.3 Alpha and Motor Processes.- 24.7.4 Association Mechanisms and Attention.- 24.8 "Alphas" Selectively Distributed in the Brain.- 24.9 An Integrative Theory of Alphas.- 25. Theta Rhythms in Integrative Brain Function.- 25.1 Functional Importance of Theta Rhythms.- 25.1.1 A Summary of Theta Rhythms in the Limbic System..- 25.2 Earlier Experiments on Induced or Evoked Theta Oscillations.- 25.3 Correlating with Orienting: Review by Miller.- 25.4 Theta Activity in the Prefrontal Cortex.- 25.5 Miller's Description of the Relation of Intracellular Potentials to EEG Activity in the Theta EEG Activity.- 25.6 Selectively Distributed and Induced Theta Oscillations in the Brain; A Theory.- 26. Gamma-Band Responses in the Brain: Functional Significance.- 26.1 Historical Note: Four Phases of Pioneering Studies Related.- to the Gamma Band.- 26.2 A Classification of Gamma-Band Activities by Galambos.- 26.3 40 Hz Responses at the Cellular Level.- 26.4 40 Hz Responses in Field-Potential Recordings: Sensory and/or Cognitive Processes?.- 26.4.1 Measurements in Animals.- 26.4.2 Measurements in Humans.- 26.5 Functional Interpretation of 40 Hz Responses in Light of Comparative Data.- 26.5.1 The Binding Problem: Gamma-Band-Induced Rhythm as a Mechanism of Feature-Linking in the Visual Cortex.- 26.5.2 The Diffuse and Selectively Distributed Gamma System of the Brain.- 26.5.3 Conclusion.- 27. Structures, Brain Waves, and Their Functions.- 27.1 Parallel Processing - A Principle of Brain Function Accessible.- to Investigation by Means of Field Potentials and EEG.- 27.2 The Basic Cortical Circuit and Cortical Oscillatory Responses.- 27.3 Thalamus: Sensory Gate for the Alpha Response.- 27.3.1 Classical Thalamocortical Projection.- 27.4 Hippocampus.- 27.4.1 Hippocampus as "Supramodal Structure".- 27.4.2Cross-Modality Experiments.- 27.5 Frontal Cortex.- 27.6 Cerebellum.- 28. Brain Functioning: Integrative Models.- 28.1 EEG Frequencies as General Operators.- 28.2 Do EEG Frequencies Reflect Repertoires of Higher Brain Function?.- 28.3 From "Functional EEG Modules" to "Selectively Distributed Frequency Systems" in the Brain.- 28.3.1 Does Cortico-Cortical communication between EEG Modules in the Distant Parts of the Cortex Exist?.- 28.4 Tentative Conclusions.- 28.4.1 Activation of Alpha System with Light.- 28.4.2 Activation of the Alpha System with Auditory Stimulation.- 28.4.3 Activation of Theta and Delta Systems.- 28.4.4 Experiments with Focused Attention.- 29. EEG and Event-Related Oscillations as Brain Alphabet.- 29.1 The Integrative Character of the Compound Potential EP.- 29.2 Compound P300 Potential.- 29.3 A Cognitive Input Reduces the Compound Potentials to Almost Homogeneous Oscillatory Responses.- 29.4 How Is a Compound EP Almost Reduced to Homogeneous Oscillatory Response Potential in the Delta Frequency Range?.- 29.5 Event-Related Rhythms in 5 Hz and 10 Hz: Reduction of the Compound Potential by Topological Differentiation.- 29.6 Brain Codes: Brain Alphabet EEG?.- 29.7 Examples of the Brain Alphabet EEG.- 29.8 The Concept of "EEG Codes" as an Important Step Towards.- the New Integrative Neurophysiology.- 29.9 Thoughts Concerning the So-Called Grandmother Cell.- 29.10 Possible Operator Properties of EEG Frequencies.- 30. Event-Related Oscillations in Brain Function.- 30.1 Selectively Distributed Theta Oscillations: Properties, Functions, and Hypotheses.- 30.1.1 Properties.- 30.1.2 Functions.- 30.1.3 Hypotheses.- 30.2 Selectively Distributed Alpha Oscillations: Properties, Functions, and Hypotheses.- 30.2.1 Properties and Functions.- 30.2.2 Hypotheses.- 30.3 Functions and Hyphotheses Related to the Selectively Distributed Gamma Oscillations.- 30.3.1 Hypotheses.- 30.4 Selectively Distributed Delta Oscillations:.- Functions and Hyphotheses.- 30.5 Conclusion: Multiple Functions.- V. Conclusion.- 31. An Integrative Neurophysiology Based on Brain Oscillations.- 31.1 Oscillations Govern the General Transfer Functions in Neural Tissues of the Brain.- 31.2 Brain Oscillatory Theory and Functional Interpretations.- 31.2.1 Spontaneous Oscillations.- 31.2.2 The Origin of Event-Related Oscillations.- 31.2.3 Functional Interpretation.- 31.2.4 The Approaches of Relevance.- 31.2.5 Final Conclusion.- 32. A "Neurons-Brain" Doctrine: New Thoughts.- 33. Epilogue: EEG Oscillations in Integrative-Cognitive Neurophysiology.- References.- Author Index.